Academic Staff

David’s group formed nearly thirty years ago with initial interests in computer simulation of metabolism and the theory of metabolic control. To these it has since added interests in modelling signal transduction, in various different approaches to network analysis of metabolism, and in reconstructing metabolic networks from genomic data. In the course of this research, he has addressed problems in microbial, plant and mammalian metabolism, often in conjunction with collaborators who have contributed experimental results.

His work forms part of the emerging field of Systems Biology, in that we are concerned with understanding how biological function arises from the interactions between many components, and with building predictive models. Potential applications of our work include the design of changes in cellular metabolism to improve the output of product such as antibiotics, detecting vulnerable sites in cellular networks that could be targets for drugs to control disease-causing organisms, and improved understanding of how organisms manage to adjust their metabolism in response to environmental changes and other signals.

Research group membership

• Cell Systems Modelling Group

Research projects

Research Supervisions

• Computer modelling of metabolic networks
• Designs for metabolic engineering

Further information

• http://mudshark.brookes.ac.uk/
• http://sysbio.brookes.ac.uk/
• http://mitoscop.brookes.ac.uk/
• http://frim.brookes.ac.uk/

Journal articles

• Norman ROJ, Millat T, Schatsschneider S, Henstra AM, Breitkopf R, Oander B, Annan FJ, Piatek P, Hartman HB, Poolman MG, Fell DA, Winzer K, Minton NP, Hodgman C., 'A genome-scale model of Clostridium autoethanogenum reveals optimal bioprocess conditions for high-value chemical production from carbon monoxide.'
  IET Engineering Biology (2019)
  ISSN: 2398-6182
  Abstract

  Clostridium autoethanogenum is an industrial microbe used for the commercial-scale production of ethanol from carbon monoxide. While significant progress has been made in the attempted diversification of this bioprocess, further improvements are desirable, particularly in the formation of the high-value platform chemicals, such as 2,3-butanediol. A new, experimentally parameterised genome scale model of C. autoethanogenum predicts dramatically increased 2,3-butanediol production under non-carbon-limited conditions when thermodynamic constraints on hydrogen production are considered.

  
  
  Website 
• Huma B, Kundu S, Poolman MG; Kruger N, Fell DA, 'Stoichiometric analysis of the energetics and metabolic impact of photorespiration in C3 plants'
  Plant Journal (2018)
  ISSN: 0960-7412 eISSN: 1365-313X
  Abstract

  Analysis of the impact of photorespiration on plant metabolism is usually based on manual inspection of small network diagrams. Here we create a structural metabolic model that contains the reactions that participate in photorespiration in the plastid, peroxisome, mitochondrion and cytosol and the metabolite exchanges between them. This model was subjected to elementary flux modes analysis, a technique that enumerates all the component, minimal pathways of a network. Any feasible photorespiratory metabolism in the plant will be some combination of the elementary flux modes (EFMs) that contain the Rubisco oxygenase reaction. Amongst the EFMs we obtained was the classic photorespiratory cycle, but there were also modes that involve photorespiration coupled with mitochondrial metabolism and ATP production, the glutathione‐ascorbate (GSH‐ASC) cycle and nitrate reduction to ammonia. The modes analysis demonstrated the underlying basis of the metabolic linkages with photorespiration that have been inferred experimentally. The set of reactions common to all the elementary modes showed good agreement with the gene products of mutants that have been reported to have a defective phenotype in photorespiratory conditions. Finally, the set of modes provided a formal demonstration that photorespiration itself does not impact on the CO2:O2 ratio (assimilation quotient, AQ), except in those modes associated with concomitant nitrate reduction.
  

  Website 
• Fatma Z, Hartman H, Poolman MG, Fell DA, Srivastava S, Shakeela T, ⁠Yazdani SS, 'Model-assisted metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for long chain alkane and alcohol production'
  Metabolic Engineering 48 (2018) pp.1-12
  ISSN: 1096-7176 eISSN: 1096-7184
  Abstract Biologically-derived hydrocarbons are considered to have great potential as next-generation biofuels owing to the similarity of their chemical properties to contemporary diesel and jet fuels. However, the low yield of these hydrocarbons in biotechnological production is a major obstacle for commercialization. Several genetic and process engineering approaches have been adopted to increase the yield of hydrocarbon, but a model driven approach has not been implemented so far. Here, we applied a constraint-based metabolic modeling approach in which a variable demand for alkane biosynthesis was imposed, and co-varying reactions were considered as potential targets for further engineering of an E. coli strain already expressing cyanobacterial enzymes towards higher chain alkane production. The reactions that co-varied with the imposed alkane production were found to be mainly associated with the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and the lower half of glycolysis. An optimal modeling solution was achieved by imposing increased flux through the reaction catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (zwf) and iteratively removing 7 reactions from the network, leading to an alkane yield of 94.2% of the theoretical maximum conversion determined by in silico analysis at a given biomass rate. To validate the in silico findings, we first performed pathway optimization of the cyanobacterial enzymes in E. coli via different dosages of genes, promoting substrate channelling through protein fusion and inducing substantial equivalent protein expression, which led to a 36-fold increase in alka(e)ne production from 2.8 mg/L to 102 mg/L. Further, engineering of E. coli based on in silico findings, including biomass constraint, led to an increase in the alka(e)ne titer to 425 mg/L (major components being 249 mg/L pentadecane and 160 mg/L heptadecene), a 148.6-fold improvement over the initial strain, respectively; with a yield of 34.2% of the theoretical maximum. The impact of model-assisted engineering was also tested for the production of long chain fatty alcohol, another commercially important molecule sharing the same pathway while differing only at the terminal reaction, and a titer of 1506 mg/L was achieved with a yield of 86.4% of the theoretical maximum. Moreover, the model assisted engineered strains had produced 2.54 g/L and 12.5 g/L of long chain alkane and fatty alcohol, respectively, in the bioreactor under fed-batch cultivation condition. Our study demonstrated successful implementation of a combined in silico modeling approach along with the pathway and process optimization in achieving the highest reported titers of long chain hydrocarbons in E. coli.Website 
• Pentjuss A, Stalidzans E, Liepins J, Kokina A, Martynova J, Zikmanis P, Mozga I, Scherbaka R, Hartman H, Poolman M, Fell D, Vigants A, 'Model based biotechnological potential analysis of Kluyveromyces marxianus central metabolism'
  Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 44 (8) (2017) pp.1177-1190
  ISSN: 1367-5435 eISSN: 1476-5535
  Abstract The non-conventional yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus is an emerging industrial producer for many biotechnological processes. Here we show the application of a biomass-linked stoichiometric model of central metabolism that is experimentally validated, and mass and charge balanced for assessing the carbon conversion efficiency of wild type and modified K. marxianus. Pairs of substrates (lactose, glucose, inulin, xylose) and products (ethanol, acetate, lactate, glycerol, ethyl acetate, succinate, glutamate, phenylethanol and phenylalanine) are examined by various modeling and optimisation methods. Our model reveals the organism's potential for industrial application and metabolic engineering. Modeling results imply that the aeration regime can be used as a tool to optimise product yield and flux distribution in K. marxianus. Also rebalancing NADH and NADPH utilisation can be used to improve the efficiency of substrate conversion. Xylose is identified as a biotechnologically promising substrate for K. marxianus.Website 
• Ahmad A, Hartman H , Krishnakumar S, Fell D, Poolman M, Srivastava S, 'A genome scale model of Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius (C56-YS93) reveals its biotechnological potential on rice straw hydrolysate'
  Journal of Biotechnology 251 (2017) pp.30-37
  ISSN: 0168-1656
  Abstract Rice straw is a major crop residue which is burnt in many countries, creating signi�cant air pollution. Thus, alternative routes for disposal of rice straw are needed. Biotechnological treatment of rice straw hydrolysate has potential to convert this agriculture waste into valuable biofuel(s) and platform chemicals. Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius is a thermophile with properties specially suited for use as a biocatalyst in lignocellulosic bioprocesses, such as high optimal temperature and tolerance to high levels of ethanol. However, the capabilities of Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius to utilize sugars in rice straw hydrolysate for making bioethanol and other platform chemicals have not been fully explored. In this work, we have created a genome scale metabolic model (denoted iGT736) of the organism containing 736 gene products, 1159 reactions and 1163 metabolites. The model was validated both by purely theoretical approaches and by comparing the behaviour of the model to previously published experimental results. The model was then used to determine the yields of a variety of platform chemicals from glucose and xylose - two primary sugars in rice straw hydrolysate. A comparison with results from a model of Escherichia coli shows that G. thermoglucosidasius is capable of producing a wider range of products, and that for the products also produced by E. coli , the yields are comparable. We also discuss strategies to utilise arabinose, a minor component of rice straw hydrolysate, and propose additional reactions to lead to the synthesis of xylitol, not currently produced by G. thermoglucosidasius. Our results provide additional motivation for the current exploration of the industrial potential of G. thermoglucosidasius and we make our model publicly available to aid the development of metabolic engineering strategies for this organism.Website 
• Singh D, Carlson R, Fell D, Poolman M, 'Modelling metabolism of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum'
  Biochemical Society Transactions 43 (6) (2015) pp.1182-1186
  ISSN: 0300-5127
  Abstract Marine diatoms have potential as a biotechnological production platform, especially for lipid-derived products, including biofuels. Here we introduce some features of diatom metabolism, particularly with respect to photosynthesis, photorespiration and lipid synthesis and their differences relative to other photosynthetic eukaryotes. Since structural metabolic modelling of other photosynthetic organisms has been shown to be capable of representing their metabolic capabilities realistically, we briefly review the main approaches to this type of modelling. We then propose that genome-scale modelling of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, in response to varying light intensity, could uncover the novel aspects of the metabolic potential of this organism.Website 
• Kalnenieks U, Pentjuss A, Rutkis R, Stalidzans E, Fell DA, 'Modeling of Zymomonas mobilis central metabolism for novel metabolic engineering strategies'
  Frontiers in Microbiology 5 (42) (2014)
  ISSN: 1664-302X
  Abstract
  Mathematical modeling of metabolism is essential for rational metabolic engineering. The present work focuses on several types of modeling approach to quantitative understanding of central metabolic network and energetics in the bioethanol-producing bacterium Zymomonas mobilis. Combined use of Flux Balance, Elementary Flux Mode, and thermodynamic analysis of its central metabolism, together with dynamic modeling of the core catabolic pathways, can help to design novel substrate and product pathways by systematically analyzing the solution space for metabolic engineering, and yields insights into the function of metabolic network, hardly achievable without applying modeling tools.
   
  Website 
• Poolman MG, Kundu S, Shaw R, Fell DA, 'Metabolic trade-offs between biomass synthesis and photosynthate export at different light intensities in a genome-scale metabolic model of rice'
  Frontiers in Plant Science 5 (2014)
  ISSN: 1664-462X eISSN: 1664-462X
  Abstract

  Previously we have used a genome scale model of rice metabolism to describe how metabolism reconfigures at different light intensities in an expanding leaf of rice. Although this established that the metabolism of the leaf was adequately represented, in the model, the scenario was not that of the typical function of the leaf—to provide material for the rest of the plant. Here we extend our analysis to explore the transition to a source leaf as export of photosynthate increases at the expense of making leaf biomass precursors, again as a function of light intensity. In particular we investigate whether, when the leaf is making a smaller range of compounds for export to the phloem, the same changes occur in the interactions between mitochondrial and chloroplast metabolism as seen in biomass synthesis for growth when light intensity increases. Our results show that the same changes occur qualitatively, though there are slight quantitative differences reflecting differences in the energy and redox requirements for the different metabolic outputs.

  Website 
• Wootton-Beard PC, Brandt K, Fell DA, Warner S, Ryan L, 'Effects of a beetroot juice with high neobetanin content on the early-phase insulin response in healthy volunteers'
  Journal of Nutritional Science 3 (2014)
  ISSN: 2048-6790 eISSN: 2048-6790
  Abstract

  Produce rich in phytochemicals may alter postprandial glucose and insulin responses by interacting with the pathways that regulate glucose uptake and insulin secretion in humans. The aims of the present study were to assess the phytochemical constituents of red beetroot juice and to measure the postprandial glucose and insulin responses elicited by either 225 ml beetroot juice (BEET), a control beverage matched for macronutrient content (MCON) or a glucose beverage in healthy adults. Beetroot juice was a particularly rich source of betalain degradation compounds. The orange/yellow pigment neobetanin was measured in particularly high quantities (providing 1·3 g in the 225 ml). A total of sixteen healthy individuals were recruited, and consumed the test meals in a controlled single-blind cross-over design. Results revealed a significant lowering of the postprandial insulin response in the early phase (0–60 min) (P < 0·05) and a significantly lower glucose response in the 0–30 min phase (P < 0·05) in the BEET treatment compared with MCON. Betalains, polyphenols and dietary nitrate found in the beetroot juice may each contribute to the observed differences in the postprandial insulin concentration.

  Website 
• Hartman HB, Fell DA, Rossell S, Jensen PR, Woodward MJ, Thorndahl L, Jelsbak L, Olsen JE, Raghunathan A, Daefler S, Poolman MG, 'Identification of potential drug targets in Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium using metabolic modelling and experimental validation'
  MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 160 (2014) pp.1252-1266
  ISSN: 1350-0872 eISSN: 1465-2080
  Abstract Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium is an established model organism for Gram-negative, intracellular pathogens. Owing to the rapid spread of resistance to antibiotics among this group of pathogens, new approaches to identify suitable target proteins are required. Based on the genome sequence of S. Typhimurium and associated databases, a genome-scale metabolic model was constructed. Output was based on an experimental determination of the biomass of Salmonella when growing in glucose minimal medium. Linear programming was used to simulate variations in the energy demand while growing in glucose minimal medium. By grouping reactions with similar flux responses, a subnetwork of 34 reactions responding to this variation was identified (the catabolic core). This network was used to identify sets of one and two reactions that when removed from the genome-scale model interfered with energy and biomass generation. Eleven such sets were found to be essential for the production of biomass precursors. Experimental investigation of seven of these showed that knockouts of the associated genes resulted in attenuated growth for four pairs of reactions, whilst three single reactions were shown to be essential for growth.Website 
• Hartman HB, Fell DA, Rossell S, Jensen PR, Woodward MJ, Thorndahl L, Jelsbak L, Olsen JE, Raghunathan A, Daefler S, Poolman MG, 'Identification of potential drug targets in Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium using metabolic modelling and experimental validation'
  MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 160 (2014) pp.1252-1266
  ISSN: 1350-0872 eISSN: 1465-2080
  Abstract Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium is an established model organism for Gram-negative, intracellular pathogens. Owing to the rapid spread of resistance to antibiotics among this group of pathogens, new approaches to identify suitable target proteins are required. Based on the genome sequence of S. Typhimurium and associated databases, a genome-scale metabolic model was constructed. Output was based on an experimental determination of the biomass of Salmonella when growing in glucose minimal medium. Linear programming was used to simulate variations in the energy demand while growing in glucose minimal medium. By grouping reactions with similar flux responses, a subnetwork of 34 reactions responding to this variation was identified (the catabolic core). This network was used to identify sets of one and two reactions that when removed from the genome-scale model interfered with energy and biomass generation. Eleven such sets were found to be essential for the production of biomass precursors. Experimental investigation of seven of these showed that knockouts of the associated genes resulted in attenuated growth for four pairs of reactions, whilst three single reactions were shown to be essential for growth.Website 
• Fell D, Poolman M G, Kundu S, Shaw R, 'Responses to Light Intensity in a Genome-Scale Model of Rice Metabolism'
  Plant Physiology 162 (2) (2013) pp.1060-1072
  ISSN: 0032-0889 eISSN: 1532-2548
  Abstract

  We describe the construction and analysis of a genome-scale metabolic model representing a developing leaf cell of rice (Oryza sativa) primarily derived from the annotations in the RiceCyc database. We used flux balance analysis to determine that the model represents a network capable of producing biomass precursors (amino acids, nucleotides, lipid, starch, cellulose, and lignin) in experimentally reported proportions, using carbon dioxide as the sole carbon source. We then repeated the analysis over a range of photon flux values to examine responses in the solutions. The resulting flux distributions show that (1) redox shuttles between the chloroplast, cytosol, and mitochondrion may play a significant role at low light levels, (2) photorespiration can act to dissipate excess energy at high light levels, and (3) the role of mitochondrial metabolism is likely to vary considerably according to the balance between energy demand and availability. It is notable that these organelle interactions, consistent with many experimental observations, arise solely as a result of the need for mass and energy balancing without any explicit assumptions concerning kinetic or other regulatory mechanisms.

  Website 
• Cheung CYM, Williams TCR, Poolman MG, Fell DA, Ratcliffe RG, Sweetlove LJ, 'A method for accounting for maintenance costs in flux balance analysis improves the prediction of plant cell metabolic phenotypes under stress conditions'
  Plant Journal 75 (6) (2013) pp.1050-1061
  ISSN: 0960-7412
  Abstract

  Flux balance models of metabolism generally utilize synthesis of biomass as the main determinant of intracellular fluxes. However, the biomass constraint alone is not sufficient to predict realistic fluxes in central heterotrophic metabolism of plant cells because of the major demand on the energy budget due to transport costs and cell maintenance. This major limitation can be addressed by incorporating transport steps into the metabolic model and by implementing a procedure that uses Pareto optimality analysis to explore the trade-off between ATP and NADPH production for maintenance. This leads to a method for predicting cell maintenance costs on the basis of the measured flux ratio between the oxidative steps of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and glycolysis. We show that accounting for transport and maintenance costs substantially improves the accuracy of fluxes predicted from a flux balance model of heterotrophic Arabidopsis cells in culture, irrespective of the objective function used in the analysis. Moreover, when the new method was applied to cells under control, elevated temperature and hyper-osmotic conditions, only elevated temperature led to a substantial increase in cell maintenance costs. It is concluded that the hyper-osmotic conditions tested did not impose a metabolic stress, in as much as the metabolic network is not forced to devote more resources to cell maintenance.

  Website 
• Poolman MG, Kundu S, Shaw R, Fell DA, 'Responses to Light Intensity in a Genome–Scale Model of Rice Metabolism'
  Plant Physiology 162 (2) (2013) pp.1060-1072
  ISSN: 0032-0889 eISSN: 1532-2548
  Abstract

  We describe the construction and analysis of a genome-scale metabolic model representing a developing leaf cell of rice (Oryza sativa) primarily derived from the annotations in the RiceCyc database. We used flux balance analysis to determine that the model represents a network capable of producing biomass precursors (amino acids, nucleotides, lipid, starch, cellulose, and lignin) in experimentally reported proportions, using carbon dioxide as the sole carbon source. We then repeated the analysis over a range of photon flux values to examine responses in the solutions. The resulting flux distributions show that (1) redox shuttles between the chloroplast, cytosol, and mitochondrion may play a significant role at low light levels, (2) photorespiration can act to dissipate excess energy at high light levels, and (3) the role of mitochondrial metabolism is likely to vary considerably according to the balance between energy demand and availability. It is notable that these organelle interactions, consistent with many experimental observations, arise solely as a result of the need for mass and energy balancing without any explicit assumptions concerning kinetic or other regulatory mechanisms.

  Website 
• Pentjuss A, Odzina I, Kostromins A, Fell DA, Stalidzans E, Kalnenieks U, 'Biotechnological potential of respiring Zymomonas mobilis: A stoichiometric analysis of its central metabolism'
  Journal of Biotechnology 165 (2013) pp.1-10
  ISSN: 0168-1656 eISSN: 1873-4863
  Abstract

  The active, yet energetically inefficient electron transport chain of the ethanologenic bacterium Zymomonas mobilis could be used in metabolic engineering for redox-balancing purposes during synthesis of certain products. Although several reconstructions of Z. mobilis metabolism have been published, important aspects of redox balance and aerobic catabolism have not previously been considered. Here, annotated genome sequences and metabolic reconstructions have been combined with existing biochemical evidence to yield a medium-scale model of Z. mobilis central metabolism in the form of COBRA Toolbox model files for flux balance analysis (FBA). The stoichiometric analysis presented here suggests the feasibility of several metabolic engineering strategies for obtaining high-value products, such as glycerate, succinate, and glutamate that would use the electron transport chain to oxidize the excess NAD(P)H, generated during synthesis of these metabolites. Oxidation of the excess NAD(P)H would also be needed for synthesis of ethanol from glycerol. Maximum product yields and the byproduct spectra have been estimated for each product, with glucose, xylose, or glycerol as the carbon substrates. These novel pathways represent targets for future metabolic engineering, as they would exploit both the rapid Entner–Doudoroff glycolysis, and the energetically uncoupled electron transport of Z. mobilis.

  Website 
• Rutkis R, Kalnenieks U, Stalidzans E, Fell DA, 'Kinetic modelling of the Zymomonas mobilis Entner-Doudoroff pathway: insights into control and functionality'
  MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 159 (12) (2013) pp.2674-2689
  ISSN: 1350-0872 eISSN: 1465-2080
  Abstract Zymomonas mobilis, an ethanol-producing bacterium, possesses the Entner-Doudoroff (E-D) pathway, pyruvate decarboxylase and two alcohol dehydrogenase isoenzymes for the fermentative production of ethanol and carbon dioxide from glucose. Using available kinetic parameters, we have developed a kinetic model that incorporates the enzymic reactions of the E-D pathway, both alcohol dehydrogenases, transport reactions and reactions related to ATP metabolism. After optimizing the reaction parameters within likely physiological limits, the resulting kinetic model was capable of simulating glycolysis in vivo and in cell-free extracts with good agreement with the fluxes and steady-state intermediate concentrations reported in previous experimental studies. In addition, the model is shown to be consistent with experimental results for the coupled response of ATP concentration and glycolytic flux to ATPase inhibition. Metabolic control analysis of the model revealed that the majority of flux control resides not inside, but outside the E-D pathway itself, predominantly in ATP consumption, demonstrating why past attempts to increase the glycolytic flux through overexpression of glycolytic enzymes have been unsuccessful. Co-response analysis indicates how homeostasis of ATP concentrations starts to deteriorate markedly at the highest glycolytic rates. This kinetic model has potential for application in Z mobilis metabolic engineering and, since there are currently no E-D pathway models available in public databases, it can serve as a basis for the development of models for other micro-organisms possessing this type of glycolytic pathway.Website 
• Rutkis R, Kalnenieks U, Stalidzans E, Fell DA, 'Kinetic modelling of the Zymomonas mobilis Entner-Doudoroff pathway: insights into control and functionality'
  MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 159 (12) (2013) pp.2674-2689
  ISSN: 1350-0872 eISSN: 1465-2080
  Abstract Zymomonas mobilis, an ethanol-producing bacterium, possesses the Entner-Doudoroff (E-D) pathway, pyruvate decarboxylase and two alcohol dehydrogenase isoenzymes for the fermentative production of ethanol and carbon dioxide from glucose. Using available kinetic parameters, we have developed a kinetic model that incorporates the enzymic reactions of the E-D pathway, both alcohol dehydrogenases, transport reactions and reactions related to ATP metabolism. After optimizing the reaction parameters within likely physiological limits, the resulting kinetic model was capable of simulating glycolysis in vivo and in cell-free extracts with good agreement with the fluxes and steady-state intermediate concentrations reported in previous experimental studies. In addition, the model is shown to be consistent with experimental results for the coupled response of ATP concentration and glycolytic flux to ATPase inhibition. Metabolic control analysis of the model revealed that the majority of flux control resides not inside, but outside the E-D pathway itself, predominantly in ATP consumption, demonstrating why past attempts to increase the glycolytic flux through overexpression of glycolytic enzymes have been unsuccessful. Co-response analysis indicates how homeostasis of ATP concentrations starts to deteriorate markedly at the highest glycolytic rates. This kinetic model has potential for application in Z mobilis metabolic engineering and, since there are currently no E-D pathway models available in public databases, it can serve as a basis for the development of models for other micro-organisms possessing this type of glycolytic pathway.Website 
• Fell DA, 'Evolution of Central Carbon Metabolism'
  Molecular Cell 39 (5) (2010) pp.663-664
  ISSN: 1097-2765 eISSN: 1097-4164
  Abstract

  Organisms share a common core to their metabolic networks. But what determined this: chance, chemical necessity, or evolutionary optimization? In this issue of Molecular Cell, Noor et al. (2010) provide new evidence for selection of a network with optimal features from a broader set of possibilities.

  Website 
• Fell D, Poolman M, Gevorgyan A, 'Building and analysing genome-scale metabolic models'
  Biochemical Society Transactions 38 (5) (2010) pp.1197-1201
  ISSN: 0300-5127 eISSN: 1470-8752
  Abstract

  Reconstructing a model of the metabolic network of an organism from its annotated genome sequence would seem, at first sight, to be one of the most straightforward tasks in functional genomics, even if the various data sources required were never designed with this application in mind. The number of genome-scale metabolic models is, however, lagging far behind the number of sequenced genomes and is likely to continue to do so unless the model-building process can be accelerated. Two aspects that could usefully be improved are the ability to find the sources of error in a nascent model rapidly, and the generation of tenable hypotheses concerning solutions that would improve a model. We will illustrate these issues with approaches we have developed in the course of building metabolic models of Streptococcus agalactiae and Arabidopsis thaliana.

  Website 
• Williams TCR, Poolman MG, Howden AJM, Schwarzlander M, Fell DA, Ratcliffe RG, Sweetlove LJ, 'A genome-scale metabolic model accurately predicts fluxes in central carbon metabolism under stress conditions.'
  Plant Physiology 154 (1) (2010) pp.311-323
  ISSN: 0032-0889 eISSN: 1532-2548
  Abstract

  Flux is a key measure of the metabolic phenotype. Recently, complete (genome-scale) metabolic network models have been established for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), and flux distributions have been predicted using constraints-based modeling and optimization algorithms such as linear programming. While these models are useful for investigating possible flux states under different metabolic scenarios, it is not clear how close the predicted flux distributions are to those occurring in vivo. To address this, fluxes were predicted for heterotrophic Arabidopsis cells and compared with fluxes estimated in parallel by 13C-metabolic flux analysis (MFA). Reactions of the central carbon metabolic network (glycolysis, the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, and the tricarboxylic acid [TCA] cycle) were independently analyzed by the two approaches. Net fluxes in glycolysis and the TCA cycle were predicted accurately from the genome-scale model, whereas the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway was poorly predicted. MFA showed that increased temperature and hyperosmotic stress, which altered cell growth, also affected the intracellular flux distribution. Under both conditions, the genome-scale model was able to predict both the direction and magnitude of the changes in flux: namely, increased TCA cycle and decreased phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase flux at high temperature and a general decrease in fluxes under hyperosmotic stress. MFA also revealed a 3-fold reduction in carbon-use efficiency at the higher temperature. It is concluded that constraints-based genome-scale modeling can be used to predict flux changes in central carbon metabolism under stress conditions.

  Website 
• Williams TCR, Poolman MG, Howden AJM, Schwarzlander M, Fell DA, Ratcliffe RG, Sweetlove LJ, 'A genome-scale metabolic model accurately predicts fluxes in central carbon metabolism under stress conditions.'
  Plant Physiology 154 (1) (2010) pp.311-323
  ISSN: 0032-0889 eISSN: 1532-2548
  Abstract

  Flux is a key measure of the metabolic phenotype. Recently, complete (genome-scale) metabolic network models have been established for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), and flux distributions have been predicted using constraints-based modeling and optimization algorithms such as linear programming. While these models are useful for investigating possible flux states under different metabolic scenarios, it is not clear how close the predicted flux distributions are to those occurring in vivo. To address this, fluxes were predicted for heterotrophic Arabidopsis cells and compared with fluxes estimated in parallel by 13C-metabolic flux analysis (MFA). Reactions of the central carbon metabolic network (glycolysis, the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, and the tricarboxylic acid [TCA] cycle) were independently analyzed by the two approaches. Net fluxes in glycolysis and the TCA cycle were predicted accurately from the genome-scale model, whereas the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway was poorly predicted. MFA showed that increased temperature and hyperosmotic stress, which altered cell growth, also affected the intracellular flux distribution. Under both conditions, the genome-scale model was able to predict both the direction and magnitude of the changes in flux: namely, increased TCA cycle and decreased phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase flux at high temperature and a general decrease in fluxes under hyperosmotic stress. MFA also revealed a 3-fold reduction in carbon-use efficiency at the higher temperature. It is concluded that constraints-based genome-scale modeling can be used to predict flux changes in central carbon metabolism under stress conditions.

  Website 
• de Figueiredo LF, Schuster S, Kaleta C, Fell D, 'Can sugars be produced from fatty acids? A test case for pathway analysis tools .(Correction to Bioinformatics 24(22))'
  Bioinformatics 25 (1) (2009) pp.152-158
  ISSN: 1367-4803
  Abstract

  Motivation: In recent years, several methods have been proposed for determining metabolic pathways in an automated way based on network topology. The aim of this work is to analyse these methods by tackling a concrete example relevant in biochemistry. It concerns the question whether even-chain fatty acids, being the most important constituents of lipids, can be converted into sugars at steady state. It was proved five decades ago that this conversion using the Krebs cycle is impossible unless the enzymes of the glyoxylate shunt (or alternative bypasses) are present in the system. Using this example, we can compare the various methods in pathway analysis. Results: Elementary modes analysis (EMA) of a set of enzymes corresponding to the Krebs cycle, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis supports the scientific evidence showing that there is no pathway capable of converting acetyl-CoA to glucose at steady state. This conversion is possible after the addition of isocitrate lyase and malate synthase (forming the glyoxylate shunt) to the system. Dealing with the same example, we compare EMA with two tools based on graph theory available online, PathFinding and Pathway Hunter Tool. These automated network generating tools do not succeed in predicting the conversions known from experiment. They sometimes generate unbalanced paths and reveal problems identifying side metabolites that are not responsible for the carbon net flux. This shows that, for metabolic pathway analysis, it is important to consider the topology (including bimolecular reactions) and stoichiometry of metabolic systems, as is done in EMA.

  Website 
• de Figueiredo L, Schuster S, Kaleta C, Fell D, 'Can sugars be produced from fatty acids? A test case for pathway analysis tools'
  Bioinformatics 24 (22) (2009) pp.2615-2621
  ISSN: 1367-4803
  Abstract

  Motivation: In recent years, several methods have been proposed for determining metabolic pathways in an automated way based on network topology. The aim of this work is to analyse these methods by tackling a concrete example relevant in biochemistry. It concerns the question whether even-chain fatty acids, being the most important constituents of lipids, can be converted into sugars at steady state. It was proved five decades ago that this conversion using the Krebs cycle is impossible unless the enzymes of the glyoxylate shunt (or alternative bypasses) are present in the system. Using this example, we can compare the various methods in pathway analysis. Results: Elementary modes analysis (EMA) of a set of enzymes corresponding to the Krebs cycle, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis supports the scientific evidence showing that there is no pathway capable of converting acetyl-CoA to glucose at steady state. This conversion is possible after the addition of isocitrate lyase and malate synthase (forming the glyoxylate shunt) to the system. Dealing with the same example, we compare EMA with two tools based on graph theory available online, PathFinding and Pathway Hunter Tool. These automated network generating tools do not succeed in predicting the conversions known from experiment. They sometimes generate unbalanced paths and reveal problems identifying side metabolites that are not responsible for the carbon net flux. This shows that, for metabolic pathway analysis, it is important to consider the topology (including bimolecular reactions) and stoichiometry of metabolic systems, as is done in EMA.

  Website 
• Chase JR, Poolman MG, Fell DA, 'Contribution of NADH Increases to Ethanol's Inhibition of Retinol Oxidation by Human ADH Isoforms'
  Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 33 (4) (2009) pp.571-580
  ISSN: 0145-6008 eISSN: 1530-0277
  Abstract

  A decrease in retinoic acid levels due to alcohol consumption has been proposed as a contributor to such conditions as fetal alcohol spectrum diseases and ethanol-induced cancers. One molecular mechanism, competitive inhibition by ethanol of the catalytic activity of human alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1) (ADH) on all-trans-retinol oxidation has been shown for the ADH7 isoform. Ethanol metabolism also causes an increase in the free reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) in cells, which might reasonably be expected to decrease the retinol oxidation rate by product inhibition of ADH isoforms. To understand the relative importance of these two mechanisms by which ethanol decreases the retinol oxidation in vivo we need to assess them quantitatively. We have built a model system of 4 reactions: (1) ADH oxidation of ethanol and NAD(+), (2) ADH oxidation of retinol and NAD(+), (3) oxidation of ethanol by a generalized Ethanol(oxidase) that uses NAD(+), (4) NADH(oxidase) which carries out NADH turnover. Using the metabolic modeling package ScrumPy, we have shown that the ethanol-induced increase in NADH contributes from 0% to 90% of the inhibition by ethanol, depending on (ethanol) and ADH isoform. Furthermore, while the majority of flux control of retinaldehyde production is exerted by ADH, Ethanol(oxidase) and the NADH(oxidase) contribute as well. Our results show that the ethanol-induced increase in NADH makes a contribution of comparable importance to the ethanol competitive inhibition throughout the range of conditions likely to occur in vivo, and must be considered in the assessment of the in vivo mechanism of ethanol interference with fetal development and other diseases.

  Website 
• Wolkenhauer O, Fell D, De Meyts P, Bluthgen N, Herzel H, Le Novere N, Hofer T, Schurrle K, van Leeuwen I, 'SysBiomed Report: Advancing Systems Biology for Medical Applications'
  Iet Systems Biology 3 (2009) pp.131-136
  ISSN: 1751-8849 eISSN: 1751-8857
  Abstract

  The following report selects and summarises some of the conclusions and recommendations generated throughout a series of workshops and discussions that have lead to the publication of the Science Policy Briefing (SPB) Nr. 35, published by the European Science Foundation. (Large parts of the present text are directly based on the ESF SPB. Detailed recommendations with regard to specific application areas are not given here but can be found in the SPB. Issues related to mathematical modelling, including training and the need for an infrastructure supporting modelling are discussed in greater detail in the present text.)The numerous reports and publications about the advances within the rapidly growing field of systems biology have led to a plethora of alternative definitions for key concepts. Here, with ‘mathematical modelling’ the authors refer to the modelling and simulation of subcellular, cellular and macro-scale phenomena, using primarily methods from dynamical systems theory. The aim of such models is encoding and testing hypotheses about mechanisms underlying the functioning of cells. Typical examples are models for molecular networks, where the behaviour of cells is expressed in terms of quantitative changes in the levels of transcripts and gene products. Bioinformatics provides essential complementary tools, including procedures for pattern recognition, machine learning, statistical modelling (testing for differences, searching for associations and correlations) and secondary data extracted from databases.Dynamical systems theory is the natural language to investigate complex biological systems demonstrating nonlinear spatio-temporal behaviour. However, the generation of experimental data suitable to parameterise, calibrate and validate such models is often time consuming and expensive or not even possible with the technology available today. In our report, we use the term ‘computational model’ when mathematical models are complemented with information generated from bioinformatics resources. Hence, ‘the model’ is, in reality, an integrated collection of data and models from various (possibly heterogeneous) sources. The present report focuses on a selection of topics, which were identified as appropriate case studies for medical systems biology, and adopts a particular perspective which the authors consider important. We strongly believe that mathematical modelling represents a natural language with which to integrate data at various levels and, in doing so, to provide insight into complex diseases: 1. Modelling necessitates the statement of explicit hypotheses, a process which often enhances comprehension of the biological system and can uncover critical points where understanding is lacking. 2. Simulations can reveal hidden patterns and/or counter-intuitive mechanisms in complex systems. 3. Theoretical thinking and mathematical modelling constitute powerful tools to integrate and make sense of the biological and clinical information being generated and, more importantly, to generate new hypotheses that can then be tested in the laboratory.Medical Systems Biology projects carried out recently across Europe have revealed a need for action: 4. While the need for mathematical modelling and interdisciplinary collaborations is becoming widely recognised in the biological sciences, with substantial implications for the training and research funding mechanisms within this area, the medical sciences have yet to follow this lead. 5. To achieve major breakthroughs in Medical Systems Biology, existing academic funding schemes for large-scale projects need to be reconsidered. 6. The hesitant stance of the pharmaceutical industry towards major investment in systems biology research has to be addressed. 7. Leading medical journals should be encouraged to promote mathematical modelling.

  Website 
• Poolman MG, Miguet L, Sweetlove LJ, Fell DA, 'A Genome-Scale Metabolic Model of Arabidopsis and Some of its Properties.'
  Plant Physiology 151 (3) (2009) pp.1570-1581
  ISSN: 0032-0889 eISSN: 1532-2548
  Abstract

  We describe the construction and analysis of a genome-scale metabolic model of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) primarily derived from the annotations in the Aracyc database. We used techniques based on linear programming to demonstrate the following: (1) that the model is capable of producing biomass components (amino acids, nucleotides, lipid, starch, and cellulose) in the proportions observed experimentally in a heterotrophic suspension culture; (2) that approximately only 15% of the available reactions are needed for this purpose and that the size of this network is comparable to estimates of minimal network size for other organisms; (3) that reactions may be grouped according to the changes in flux resulting from a hypothetical stimulus (in this case demand for ATP) and that this allows the identification of potential metabolic modules; and (4) that total ATP demand for growth and maintenance can be inferred and that this is consistent with previous estimates in prokaryotes and yeast.

  Website 
• Poolman MG, Miguet L, Sweetlove LJ, Fell DA, 'A Genome-Scale Metabolic Model of Arabidopsis and Some of its Properties.'
  Plant Physiology 151 (3) (2009) pp.1570-1581
  ISSN: 0032-0889 eISSN: 1532-2548
  Abstract

  We describe the construction and analysis of a genome-scale metabolic model of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) primarily derived from the annotations in the Aracyc database. We used techniques based on linear programming to demonstrate the following: (1) that the model is capable of producing biomass components (amino acids, nucleotides, lipid, starch, and cellulose) in the proportions observed experimentally in a heterotrophic suspension culture; (2) that approximately only 15% of the available reactions are needed for this purpose and that the size of this network is comparable to estimates of minimal network size for other organisms; (3) that reactions may be grouped according to the changes in flux resulting from a hypothetical stimulus (in this case demand for ATP) and that this allows the identification of potential metabolic modules; and (4) that total ATP demand for growth and maintenance can be inferred and that this is consistent with previous estimates in prokaryotes and yeast.

  Website 
• de Figueiredo LF, Schuster S, Kaleta C, Fell DA, 'Response to comment on 'Can sugars be produced from fatty acids ? A test case for pathway analysis tools''
  BIOINFORMATICS 25 (24) (2009) pp.3330-3331
  ISSN: 1367-4803
  Abstract LetterWebsite 
• Gevorgyan A, Poolman MG, Fell D, 'Detection of stoichiometric inconsistencies in biomolecular models'
  Bioinformatics 24 (19) (2008) pp.2245-2251
  ISSN: 1367-4803
  Abstract

  Motivation: Metabolic modelling provides a mathematically rigorous basis for system-level analysis of biochemical networks. However, the growing sizes of metabolic models can lead to serious problems in their construction and validation. In this work, we describe a relatively poorly investigated type of modelling error, called stoichiometric inconsistencies. These errors are caused by incorrect definitions of reaction stoichiometries and result in conflicts between two fundamental physical constraints to be satisfied by any valid metabolic model: positivity of molecular masses of all metabolites and mass conservation in all interconversions. Results: We introduce formal definitions of stoichiometric inconsistencies, inconsistent net stoichiometries, elementary leakage modes and other important fundamental properties of incorrectly defined biomolecular networks. Algorithms are described for the verification of stoichiometric consistency of a model, detection of unconserved metabolites and inconsistent minimal net stoichiometries. The usefulness of these algorithms for effective resolving of inconsistencies and for detection of input errors is demonstrated on a published genome-scale metabolic model of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and one of Streptococcus agalactiae constructed using the KEGG database.

  Website 
• Schuster S, Pfeiffer T, Fell DA, 'Is maximization of molar yield in metabolic networks favoured by evolution?'
  Journal of Theoretical Biology 252 (3) (2008) pp.497-504
  ISSN: 0022-5193
  Abstract

  Stoichiometric analysis of metabolic networks allows the calculation of possible metabolic flux distributions in the absence of kinetic data. In order to predict which of the possible fluxes are present under certain conditions, additional constraints and optimization principles can be applied. One approach of calculating unknown fluxes (frequently called flux balance analysis) is based on the optimality principle of maximizing the molar yield of biotransformations. Here, the relevance and applicability of that approach are examined, and it is compared with the principle of maximizing pathway flux. We discuss diverse experimental evidence showing that, often, those biochemical pathways are operative that allow fast but low-yield synthesis of important products, such as fermentation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and several other yeast species. Together with arguments based on evolutionary game theory, this leads us to the conclusion that maximization of molar yield is by no means a universal principle.

  Website 
• de Figueiredo LF, Schuster S, Kaleta C, Fell DA, 'Can Sugars be Produced from Fatty Acids? A Test Case for Pathway Analysis Tools.'
  Bioinformatics 24 (1) (2008) pp.2615-2621
  ISSN: 1367-4803
  Abstract

  Motivation: In recent years, several methods have been proposed for determining metabolic pathways in an automated way based on network topology. The aim of this work is to analyse these methods by tackling a concrete example relevant in biochemistry. It concerns the question whether even-chain fatty acids, being the most important constituents of lipids, can be converted into sugars at steady state. It was proved five decades ago that this conversion using the Krebs cycle is impossible unless the enzymes of the glyoxylate shunt (or alternative bypasses) are present in the system. Using this example, we can compare the various methods in pathway analysis.

• Sweetlove LJ, Fell D, Fernie AR, 'Getting to Grips With the Plant Metabolic Network'
  Biochemical Journal 409 (1) (2008) pp.27-41
  Abstract

  Of all the molecular-interaction networks in plants, metabolism is by far and away the most completely described both in terms of network topology and in terms of the properties of its molecular components. Moreover, experimental tools exist that allow systematic measurement of its behaviour and there is now a wealth of data describing metabolic systems at the molecular level. Nevertheless, we remain some way off being able to exploit this knowledge to rationally engineer metabolism and we are unable to predict the nature of metabolic change under different conditions or in response to genetic intervention. One of the great problems is the persistence of the metabolic pathway paradigm when in reality, metabolism is a highly interconnected network and fixed pathways do not exist. To generate a more realistic view of metabolism, one must encapsulate information about metabolic behaviour into a model of the network as a whole. The construction of a mathematical model that describes the metabolic network of plants at ‘genome scale’ is now a plausible goal (especially in the case of model plants such as Arabidopsis). We have begun the construction of such a model and in my talk I will outline our current progress.

  Website 
• Fell D, Poolman M, Sebu C, Pidcock M, 'Modular decomposition of metabolic systems via null space analysis'
  Journal of Theoretical Biology 249 (4) (2007) pp.691-705
  ISSN: 0022-5193
  Abstract

  We describe a method by which the reactions in a metabolic system may be grouped hierarchically into sets of modules to form a metabolic reaction tree. In contrast to previous approaches, the method described here takes into account the fact that, in a viable network, reactions must be capable of sustaining a steady-state flux. In order to achieve this decomposition we introduce a new concept-”the reaction correlation coefficient, φ, and show that this is a logical extension of the concept of enzyme (or reaction) subsets. In addition to their application to modular decomposition, reaction correlation coefficients have