Academic staff

Modules taught

 

Undergraduate

• U20124 Human Resource Ecology
• U20143 Human Ecology
• U20192 People and Other Animals

Postgraduate

• P20102 People-Primate Interactions (MSc Primate Conservation)

 

Supervision

Research Students

• S. HIll (1998-2000)
• A.D. Webber (2003-2006)
• R.K. Zapf McShane (2006-2008) - Antioch University, US
• M.R. McLennan (2005-2010)
• G.E. Wallace (2005-2010)
• K. Hiser (2005-2012)
• H. Parathian (2006-2014)
• Nancy Moinde-Fockler (2009-2014) Rutgers University, US
• J. vaz de Sousa (2009-2014)
• Nicola Lamb (2014 -
• Aimee Oakley (2014 -
• Miranda Strubel (2015 -
• Hellen Bersacola (2016 -
• Ben Klinkenberg (2016 -

Kate's research focuses on people-wildlife interactions and the human dimensions of conservation.  She is currently working with research students on these issues in Uganda, Guinea Bisseau and the UK.  Previous PhD students have worked in Uganda, Colombia, Kenya and Guinea Bisseau.

Research projects

Completed:

• Human-wildlife conflict in Uganda (2005-2009) - funded by The Leverhulme Trust (F/100 382/F)

Ongoing:

• Sharing landscapes and tolerating wildlife: the reintroduction of the red kite to the UK [with Miranda Strubel, Prof. S. Redpath, Dr A. Webber] (2015-

Journal articles

• Parathian HE, McLennan MR, Hill CM, Frazao-Moreira A, Hockings KJ, 'Breaking through disciplinary barriers: Human-wildlife interactions and multispecies ethnography'
  International Journal of Primatology 39 (5) (2018) pp.749-775
  ISSN: 0164-0291 eISSN: 1573-8604
  Abstract One of the main challenges when integrating biological and social perspectives in primatology is overcoming interdisciplinary barriers. Unfamiliarity with subject-specific theory and language, distinct disciplinary-bound approaches to research, and academic boundaries aimed at ‘preserving the integrity’ of subject disci-plines can hinder developments in interdisciplinary research. With growing interest in how humans and other primates share landscapes, and recognition of the importance of combining biological and social information to do this effectively, the disparate use of terminology is becoming more evident. To tackle this problem, we dissect the meaning of what the biological sciences term studies in ‘human–wildlife conflict’ or more recent-ly ‘human–wildlife interactions’ and compare it to what anthropology terms ‘multispecies ethnography’. In the biological sciences, human–wildlife interactions are the actions resulting from people and wild animals sharing landscapes and resources, with outcomes ranging from being beneficial or harmful to one or both species. In the social sciences, human–nonhuman relationships have been explored on a philosophical, ana-lytical and empirical level. Building on previous work, we advocate viewing landscapes through an interdis-ciplinary ‘multispecies lens’ where humans are observed as one of multiple organisms which interact with other species to shape and create environments. To illustrate these interconnections we use the case study of coexistence between people of the Nalu ethnic group and Critically Endangered western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Cantanhez National Park in Guinea-Bissau, to demonstrate how biological and social research approaches can be complementary and can inform conservation initiatives at the human–primate interface. Finally, we discuss how combining perspectives from ethnoprimatology with those from multi-species ethnography can advance the study of ethnoprimatology to aid productive discourse and enhance future interdisciplinary research.Website 
• Hill CM, 'Crop Foraging, Crop Losses, and Crop Raiding'
  Annual Review of Anthropology 47 (2018) pp.377-394
  ISSN: 0084-6570
  Abstract Crop foraging or crop raiding concerns wildlife foraging and farmers’ reactions and responses to it.  To understand crop foraging and its value to wildlife or its implications for humans requires a cross disciplinary approach that considers the behavior and ecology of wild animals engaging in this behavior, the types and levels of competition for resources between people and wildlife, people’s perceptions of and attitudes towards wildlife including those that forage on crops, and discourse about  animals and their behaviors and how these can be used for expressing dissent and distress about other social conflicts.  So, to understand and respond to ‘conflicts’ about crop damage we need to look beyond what people lose, i.e., crop loss and economic equivalence, and focus more on what people say about wildlife and why they say it.Website 
• Rust NA, Abrams A, Taylor N, Wordinsham G, Unnikrishnan H, Hughes C, Webber AD, Glickman JA, Gowan CH, Sutton A, Said A, Thomas S, Ghoddousi A, Hill CM, 'Quantity does not always mean quality: the importance of qualitative social science in conservation research'
  Society & Natural Resources 30 (10) (2017) pp.1304-1310
  ISSN: 0894-1920
  Abstract Qualitative methods are important in gaining a deep understanding of complex problems and poorly researched areas. They can be particularly useful to help explain underlying conservation problems, as in Rust et al. (2016). However, the significance in choosing and justifying appropriate methodological frameworks in conservation studies should be given more attention to ensure data are collected and analysed appropriately. We thank Potgieter et al. (2017) for their critical analysis of Rust et al. (2016), but they appear unaware of when, why and how such methods should be used. We clarify the methods described in Rust et al. (2016) and explain sampling strategies in qualitative studies. To improve familiarity with qualitative methods among natural scientists we recommend expanded training in social sciences and collaborating with social scientists. Given the scale of human impacts on the environment, this type of nuanced analytical skill is critical for moving conservation forward.Website 
• Sousa J, Ainslie A, Hill CM, 'Sorcery and nature conservation'
  Environmental Conservation 45 (1) (2017) pp.90-95
  ISSN: 0376-8929 eISSN: 1469-4387
  Abstract Representations of animals are diverse and can portray local understandings of nature conservation, information that is often missing from conservation debates. In Cantanhez National Park (southern Guinea-Bissau) chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are recognised as animals that share certain features with humans but live independently of them in the forest. However, chimpanzees are also integral to socially mediated, deep-rooted, local narratives about sorcery and nature conservation. We use results from ethnographic research to explore local interpretations of chimpanzee attacks on people. Attacks by ‘bush’ chimpanzees occur when an animal is provoked by someone’s actions towards it. Unprovoked attacks however, are either interpreted as the act of a shape-shifted chimpanzee (i.e., a sorcerer) or as the responsibility of conservation stakeholders. In the case of unprovoked attacks, chimpanzee aggression is linked to a perceived abuse of power and to greed, with implications for nature conservation locally. Close analysis of local representations of animals contributes to a broader consideration of conservation priorities and practiceWebsite 
• Sousa J, Hill C M, Ainslie A, 'Chimpanzees, sorcery and contestation in a protected area in Guinea-Bissau'
  Social Anthropology 25 (3) (2017) pp.364-379
  ISSN: 0964-0282
  Abstract In Cantanhez National Park in Guinea-Bissau the construction of meaning made upon encounters with chimpanzees is associated with local social life. If a chimpanzee makes an unprovoked attack on a person, its actions are often understood as those of a sorcerer. Chimpanzees are involved in two parallel accusation discourses, one is played in intimate spheres of sociability where sorcerers harm their kin to benefit from secret alliances, and the other addresses a wider audience perceived to benefit from chimpanzees which are being protected at the expense of other humans. Both narratives represent local criticism against transgressions to calculations of redistribution and reciprocity.
   
  Key words: chimpanzees, sorcery, national park, nature conservation, reciprocity.
  
• O'Brien E, Hill C M, 'Assessing the potential of non-harmful, natural feeding deterrents tested on captive primates'
  International Journal of Pest Management 64 (1) (2017) pp.59-65
  ISSN: 0967-0874
  Abstract Crop damage by non-human primates, can cause friction between local people, government wildlife agencies and conservationists. Consequently, developing effective, non-lethal methods to protect crops against primate foraging could benefit farmers, reduce conflicts between interest groups, and even promote primate conservation The purpose of this research was to (i) develop a simple, economical protocol for testing the deterrent properties of non-lethal plant substances on captive primates prior to testing in the field; (ii) examine the preliminary effectiveness of neem (Azadirachta indica) and ocimum (Ocimum kilimandscharicum) essential oils,and spent coffee grounds (SCG) as feeding deterrents in captive macaques. The test methods developed involved exposing primates to possible feeding deterrents whilst feeding and comparing to a control. This was used to identify likely repellent substances, which could then be tested in the field to determine their effectiveness against crop damage. SCG were most effective at deterring the macaques; ocimum and neem essential oils were less effective though animals appeared less willing to access food when protected by these oils than they were under control conditions. Website 
• Hill C M, 'Primate crop feeding behaviour, crop protection and conservation'
  International Journal of Primatology 38 (2) (2017) pp.385-400
  ISSN: 0164-0291
  Abstract Many species across a range of primate genera, irrespective of dietary and locomotory specializations, can and will incorporate agricultural crops in their diets. However, while there is little doubt that rapid, extensive conversion of natural habitats to agricultural areas is significantly impacting primate populations, primate crop foraging behaviours cannot solely be understood in terms of animals shifting to cultivated crops to compensate for reduced wild food availability. To fully understand why, how and when primates might incorporate crops in their dietary repertoire, we need to examine primate crop foraging behaviour in the context of their feeding strategies and nutritional ecology. In this paper I briefly outline current debates about the use of terms such as 'human-wildlife conflict' and 'crop raiding' and why they are misleading, summarise current knowledge about primate crop foraging behaviour, and highlight some key areas for future research to support human-primate coexistence in an increasingly anthropogenic world. Website 
• Mormile J, Hill C, 'Living With Urban Baboons: Exploring Attitudes and Their Implications for Local Baboon Conservation and Management in Knysna, South Africa'
  Human Dimensions of Wildlife 22 (2) (2017) pp.99-109
  ISSN: 1087-1209 eISSN: 1533-158X
  Abstract Humans and primates are coming into increasing contact within urban landscapes. Few studies have investigated how the impacts of living alongside urban primates affect residents’ perceptions of primates. Perceptions have been shown to play a role in conservation interest and management of other urban wildlife species. A survey of suburban residents in Knysna, South Africa was used to explore the relationships between attitudes, level of perceived threat and extent to which baboons were considered a problem, support for local baboon conservation and preferred baboon management strategies. Results indicated that perceived threat was associated with less positive attitudes towards baboons, a greater perceived problem, decreased concern for baboon conservation, and increased advocacy for their lethal removal. This article illustrates the link between respondent perceptions and acceptance of urban primates and the need for further investigation for the wellbeing of both humans and primates.
  Website 
• Racevska E, Hill C M, 'Personality and social dynamics of zoo-housed western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)'
  Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 5 (3) (2017) pp.116-122
  eISSN: 2214-7594
  Abstract Western lowland gorillas are among the most studied nonhuman primates. However, managing them in captivity is not without its challenges. Understanding individual differences between gorillas, as well as differences in group dynamics, may be of high value in these apes' more efficient captive management. Predicting behaviour may be especially useful, particularly in terms of affiliative and aggressive behaviours. For these reasons, we designed a brief study that investigates the relationship between gorillas' personality and social dynamics.
  Our study was conducted in Paignton Zoo Environmental Park (UK), in May 2015. Behavioural observations were carried out on an all-male gorilla group, comprising one silverback and four maturing blackbacks. Behaviour was recorded using scan sampling, with an instantaneous recording technique. During the same time, we used all occurrence sampling to record social behaviours of interest: affiliative behaviour (social resting, social playing) and agonistic behaviour (displacement, aggressive behaviour), with the initiator and the recipient recorded for each event. Additionally, the main gorilla keeper rated each gorilla on the Gorilla Behavior Index (GBI), a personality assessment instrument that identifies four personality factors - Extroverted, Dominant, Fearful, and Understanding. Gorillas with higher scores on the Extroverted factor had higher proportions of social behaviour in their activity budgets, and were also more likely to be chosen to rest near. Individuals with higher Dominant scores were less likely to be displaced, while higher Understanding scores were correlated to a lesser likelihood of initiating aggressive interactions, and a higher proportion of solitary behaviour. To better understand the relationship between gorillas' personality and behaviour, we recommend the use of a hierarchical approach to studying personality in the future. We anticipate that a higher level of specificity will enable more accurate prediction of behaviour, thereby providing useful tool for gorillas' captive management.
  Website 
• van Kuijk SM, Garcia-Suikkanen C, Tello-Alvarado JC, Vermeer J, Hil CMl, 'Estimating population density of the San Martin Titi monkey (Callicebus oenanthe) in Peru using vocalisations.'
  Folia Primatologica 86 (2016) pp.525-533
  ISSN: 0015-5713 eISSN: 1421-9980
  Abstract We calculated the population density of the critically endangered Callicebus oenanthe in the Ojos de Agua Conservation Concession, a dry forest area in the department of San Martin, Peru. Results showed significant differences (p < 0.01) in group densities between forest boundaries (16.5 groups/km2, IQR = 21.1-11.0) and forest interior (4.0 groups/km2, IQR = 5.0-0.0), suggesting the 2,550-ha area harbours roughly 1,150 titi monkeys. This makes Ojos de Agua an important cornerstone in the conservation of the species, because it is one of the largest protected areas where the species occurs.Website 
• Hockings KJ, McLennan MR, Carvalho S, Ancrenaz M, Bobe R, Byrne R, Dunbar RIM, Matsuzawa T, McGrew WC, Williamson EA, Wilson M, Wood B, Wrangham R, Hill CM, 'Apes in the Anthropocene: flexibility and survival'
  Trends in Ecology and Evolution 30 (4) (2015) pp.215-222
  ISSN: 0169-5347 eISSN: 1872-8383
  Abstract We are in a new epoch, the Anthropocene, and research into our closest living relatives, the great apes, must keep pace with the rate that our species is driving change. While a goal of many studies is to understand how great apes behave in natural contexts, the impact of human activities must increasingly be taken into account. This is both a challenge and an opportunity, which can importantly inform research in three diverse fields: cognition, human evolution, and conservation. No long-term great ape research site is wholly unaffected by human influence, but research at those that are especially affected by human activity is particularly important for ensuring that our great ape kin survive the Anthropocene.Website 
• Hill C M, 'Perspectives of "Conflict" at the Wildlife-Agriculture Boundary: 10 Years On'
  Human Dimensions of Wildlife 20 (4) (2015)
  ISSN: 1087-1209 eISSN: 1533-158X
  Abstract

   Previously I argued that prioritizing farmers’ concerns, priorities, and understandings of human-wildlife interactions was central to developing effective human-wildlife conflict (HWC) mitigation, presupposing that HWC is about the costs of coexisting with wildlife. Further experience and the wider literature suggest this is not always true. Identifying and addressing underlying and unresolved tensions among different stakeholder groups is increasingly recognized as key to managing HWCs. However, terms like “HWC” or “crop-raiding” obscure the nature of, and appropriate responses to, such “conflicts.” Additionally, we should recognize how culturally constructed, symbolic meanings of animals feed into discourse around “conflicts” and conservation. Competing constructions of animals reflect different agendas, perspectives, and values, which all contribute to “conflicts” around wildlife.

  Website 
• Webber AD, Hill CM, 'Risk mapping and risk indices : tools for identifying, prioritising and understanding people’s perceptions of risk of crop loss to wild and domesticated species in Uganda'
  PLoS ONE 9 (7) (2014)
  ISSN: 1932-6203
  Abstract Considering how people perceive risks to their livelihoods from local wildlife is central to (i) understanding the impact of crop damage by animals on local people and (ii) recognising how this influences their interactions with, and attitudes towards, wildlife. Participatory risk mapping (PRM) is a simple, analytical tool that can be used to identify and classify risk within communities. Here we use it to explore local people's perceptions of crop damage by wildlife and the animal species involved. Interviews (n = 93, n = 76) and seven focus groups were conducted in four villages around Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda during 2004 and 2005. Farms (N = 129) were simultaneously monitored for crop loss. Farmers identified damage by wildlife as the most significant risk to their crops; risk maps highlighted its anomalous status compared to other anticipated challenges to agricultural production. PRM was further used to explore farmers' perceptions of animal species causing crop damage and the results of this analysis compared with measured crop losses. Baboons (Papio anubis) were considered the most problematic species locally but measurements of loss indicate this perceived severity was disproportionately high. In contrast goats (Capra hircus) were considered only a moderate risk, yet risk of damage by this species was significant. Surprisingly, for wild pigs (Potamochoerus sp), perceptions of severity were not as high as damage incurred might have predicted, although perceived incidence was greater than recorded frequency of damage events. PRM can assist researchers and practitioners to identify and explore perceptions of the risk of crop damage by wildlife. As this study highlights, simply quantifying crop loss does not determine issues that are important to local people nor the complex relationships between perceived risk factors. Furthermore, as PRM is easily transferable it may contribute to the identification and development of standardised approaches of mitigation across sites of negative human-wildlife interaction.Website 
• Webber A, Hill CM, 'Using participatory risk mapping (PRM) to identify and understand people's perceptions of crop loss to animals in Uganda'
  PLoS ONE 9 (7) (2014)
  ISSN: 1932-6203
  Abstract Considering how people perceive risks to their livelihoods from local wildlife is central to (i) understanding the impact of crop damage by animals on local people and (ii) recognising how this influences their interactions with, and attitudes towards, wildlife. Participatory risk mapping (PRM) is a simple, analytical tool that can be used to identify and classify risk within communities. Here we use it to explore local people's perceptions of crop damage by wildlife and the animal species involved. Interviews (n = 93, n = 76) and seven focus groups were conducted in four villages around Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda during 2004 and 2005. Farms (N = 129) were simultaneously monitored for crop loss. Farmers identified damage by wildlife as the most significant risk to their crops; risk maps highlighted its anomalous status compared to other anticipated challenges to agricultural production. PRM was further used to explore farmers' perceptions of animal species causing crop damage and the results of this analysis compared with measured crop losses. Baboons (Papio anubis) were considered the most problematic species locally but measurements of loss indicate this perceived severity was disproportionately high. In contrast goats (Capra hircus) were considered only a moderate risk, yet risk of damage by this species was significant. Surprisingly, for wild pigs (Potamochoerus sp), perceptions of severity were not as high as damage incurred might have predicted, although perceived incidence was greater than recorded frequency of damage events. PRM can assist researchers and practitioners to identify and explore perceptions of the risk of crop damage by wildlife. As this study highlights, simply quantifying crop loss does not determine issues that are important to local people nor the complex relationships between perceived risk factors. Furthermore, as PRM is easily transferable it may contribute to the identification and development of standardised approaches of mitigation across sites of negative human-wildlife interaction.Website 
• Hockings K J, McLennan M R, Hill C M, 'Fear Beyond Predators'
  Science 344 (6187) (2014) pp.981-
  ISSN: 0036-8075 eISSN: 1095-9203
  Website 
• McLennan M R, Hill C M, 'Troublesome neighbours: Changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda'
  Journal for Nature Conservation 20 (4) (2012) pp.219-227
  ISSN: 1617-1381
  Abstract Long-term human-wildlife sympatry depends on the willingness and capacity of local people to coexistwith wild animals. With human population growth and deforestation for agriculture, farmers increasingly live in proximity to wildlife, including large mammals of conservation concern. Understanding local perspectives and concerns regarding wildlife is essential for informing appropriate management strategies that reduce conflicts and promote sustainable coexistence. Social science approaches therefore have a critical role in integrated conservation programmes. We undertook an attitude survey to understand residents" perspectives about sharing a landscape with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an unprotected forest-agriculture mosaic in Uganda. Interviews (n = 134) in 12 villages demonstrate residents" ambivalence towards living alongside these protected yet potentially troublesome mammals.Chimpanzee behaviour is reported to have undergone recent changes. Residents claim apes increasingly enter villages for food, threaten people, and pose a particular threat to children" s safety. Chimpanzee numbers are believed to have increased locally. Most interviewees fear chimpanzees, considering them dangerous. Crop losses to chimpanzees were widely reported. Farmers tolerate raiding of domestic fruits,but not cash-crops. Results demonstrate that attitudes towards wildlife are not fixed. Reported changes to chimpanzee behaviour are challenging villagers" traditionally benign attitude towards them. Even so, residents acknowledge benefits to chimpanzees because they reportedly displace other crop-raiding wildlife which, unlike chimpanzees, damage important staple food crops. Survey findings are contextualised with respect to recent, major land-use changes in Uganda (clearance of unprotected forest for timber and agriculture)that have precipitated a sharp rise in farmer-chimpanzee interactions. We discuss the study" s broader implications for protected mammal management and conflict mitigation in human-dominated landscapes, and ask whether it is appropriate to expect impoverished rural farmers to accommodate large-bodied mammals that pose a potential threat to their safety and livelihoods.Website 
• Hill C M, Wallace G E, 'Crop protection and conflict mitigation: reducing the costs of living alongside non-human primates'
  Biodiversity and Conservation 21 (10) (2012) pp.2569-2587
  ISSN: 0960-3115 eISSN: 1572-9710
  Website 
• Wallace G E, Hill C M, 'Crop damage by primates: quantifying the key parameters of crop-raiding events'
  PLoS ONE 7 (10) (2012) pp.e46636-
  ISSN: 1932-6203
  Abstract

  Human-wildlife conflict often arises from crop-raiding, and insights regarding which aspects of raiding events determine crop loss are essential when developing and evaluating deterrents. However, because accounts of crop-raiding behaviour are frequently indirect, these parameters are rarely quantified or explicitly linked to crop damage. Using systematic observations of the behaviour of non-human primates on farms in western Uganda, this research identifies number of individuals raiding and duration of raid as the primary parameters determining crop loss. Secondary factors include distance travelled onto farm, age composition of the raiding group, and whether raids are in series. Regression models accounted for greater proportions of variation in crop loss when increasingly crop and species specific. Parameter values varied across primate species, probably reflecting differences in raiding tactics or perceptions of risk, and thereby providing indices of how comfortable primates are on-farm. Median raiding-group sizes were markedly smaller than the typical sizes of social groups. The research suggests that key parameters of raiding events can be used to measure the behavioural impacts of deterrents to raiding. Furthermore, farmers will benefit most from methods that discourage raiding by multiple individuals, reduce the size of raiding groups, or decrease the amount of time primates are on-farm. This study demonstrates the importance of directly relating crop loss to the parameters of raiding events, using systematic observations of the behaviour of multiple primate species.

  Website 
• Hill C M, Webber A D, 'Perceptions of nonhuman primates in human-wildlife conflict scenarios'
  American Journal of Primatology 72 (10) (2010) pp.919-924
  ISSN: 0275-2565 eISSN: 1098-2345
  Abstract

  Nonhuman primates (referred to as primates in this study) are sometimes revered as gods, abhorred as evil spirits, killed for food because they damage crops, or butchered for sport. Primates' perceived similarity to humans places them in an anomalous position. While some human groups accept the idea that primates -œstraddle- the human-nonhuman boundary, for others this resemblance is a violation of the human-animal divide. In this study we use two case studies to explore how people's perceptions of primates are often influenced by these animals' apparent similarity to humans, creating expectations, founded within a -œhuman morality- about how primates should interact with people. When animals transgress these social rules, they are measured against the same moral framework as humans. This has implications for how people view and respond to certain kinds of primate behaviors, their willingness to tolerate co-existence with primates and their likely support for primate conservation initiatives. Am. J. Primatol. 72:919-924, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

  Website 
• McLennan M R, Hill C M, 'Chimpanzee responses to researchers in a disturbed forest-farm mosaic at Bulindi, western Uganda'
  American Journal of Primatology 72 (10) (2010) pp.907-918
  ISSN: 0275-2565 eISSN: 1098-2345
  Abstract

  We describe the behavior of a previously unstudied community of wild chimpanzees during opportunistic encounters with researchers in an unprotected forest-farm mosaic at Bulindi, Uganda. Data were collected during 115 encounters between May 2006 and January 2008. Individual responses were recorded during the first minute of visual contact. The most common responses were -œignore- for arboreal chimpanzees and -œmonitor- for terrestrial individuals. Chimpanzees rarely responded with -œflight-. Adult males were seen disproportionately often relative to adult females, and accounted for 90% of individual responses recorded for terrestrial animals. Entire encounters were also categorized based on the predominant response of the chimpanzee party to researcher proximity. The most frequent encounter type was -œignore- (36%), followed by -œmonitor- (21%), -œintimidation- (18%) and -œstealthy retreat- (18%). -œIntimidation- encounters occurred when chimpanzees were contacted in dense forest where visibility was low, provoking intense alarm and agitation. Adult males occasionally acted together to repel researchers through aggressive mobbing and pursuit. Chimpanzee behavior during encounters reflects the familiar yet frequently agonistic relationship between apes and local people at Bulindi. The chimpanzees are not hunted but experience high levels of harassment from villagers. Human-directed aggression by chimpanzees may represent a strategy to accommodate regular disruptions to foraging effort arising from competitive encounters with people both in and outside forest. Average encounter duration and proportion of encounters categorized as -œignore- increased over time, whereas -œintimidation- encounters decreased, indicating some habituation occurred during the study. Ecotourism aimed at promoting tolerance of wildlife through local revenue generation is one possible strategy for conserving great apes on public or private land. However, the data imply that habituating chimpanzees for viewing-based ecotourism in heavily human-dominated landscapes, such as Bulindi, is ill-advised since a loss of fear of humans could lead to increased negative interactions with local people. Am. J. Primatol. Am. J. Primatol. 72:907-918, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

  Website 
• Webber AD, Hill CM, Reynolds V, 'Assessing the Failure of a Community-based Human-wildlife Conflict Mitigation Project in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda'
  Oryx 41 (2007) pp.177-184
  ISSN: 0030-6053 eISSN: 1365-3008
  Website 

Book chapters

• Hill CM, 'Crop Raiding' in Augustin Fuentes (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Primatology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2017)
  Website 
• Wallace G E, Hill C M, 'Engaging Farmers and Understanding Their Behaviour to Develop Effective Deterrents to Crop Damage by Wildlife' in C M Hill, A D Webber and N E C Priston (ed.), Understanding Conflicts About Wildlife, Berghahn Books (2017)
  ISBN: 978-1-78533-462-7 eISBN: 978-1-78533-463-4
  Website 
• Hill C M, 'Introduction. COMPLEX PROBLEMS Using a Biosocial Approach to Understanding Human-Wildlife Interactions' in C M Hill, A D Webber, N E C Priston (ed.), Understanding Conflicts About Wildlife: A Biosocial Approach, Berghahn Books (2017)
  
• Humle T, Hill CM, 'People-primate interactions: implications for primate conservation' in Serge A. Wich & Andrew J. Marshall (ed.), An Introduction to Primate Conservation, Oxford University Press (2016)
  ISSN: 0030-6053 ISBN: 978-0-19-870339-6
  Website 
• McLennan M R, Hill C M, 'Changing agricultural practices and human-chimpanzee interactions: tobacco and sugarcane farming in and around Bulindi, Uganda' in Arcus Foundation (ed.), State of the Apes Volume II: Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation, Cambridge University Press (2015)