Staff Profiles

Writing & Reading Research

Vince's general research interests revolve around the development of writing, spelling and reading. He is currently investigating why some children struggle to write. He is known internationally for this work and has given keynote lectures and invited talks across Europe on this topic. He was recently appointed to be the European Co-ordinator of the Special Interest Group on Writing (http://www.sig-writing.org) as part of the European Association for Research in Learning and Instruction.  A number his projects have involved using digital tablets to record writing so that real time writing processes can be examined in detail. These innovative studies have shown that our current understanding of how writing develops is limited and we do not yet have a clear idea of how writing development goes wrong for some children. However, online examination of the writing process can shed light on the barriers to success for children with dyslexia, SLI and other difficulties.

Vince has also carried out work related to understanding how reading instruction influences the reading process. Comparisons between phonics taught children in Scotland and children taught to read without phonics in New Zealand have helped deepen the understanding of how instruction shapes reading. One of the published studies from these projects showed that traces of instruction could be found in the reading approaches of adults twenty or so years later.

Vince has also developed partnerships with schools and teachers concerned with the development of literacy skills. A series of workshops and conferences run at Brookes and in conjunction with Julie Dockrell and the Institute of Education was a great success and involved many different schools and colleges.

Military organisational psychology research

More recently Vince has also been working with the University of Edinburgh and the British Army on a project investigating the integration of full and part time members of the Army under proposed future changes. This work was cited in the recent Government White Paper on changes to the British Army Reserve Forces. A recent ESRC grant awarded with colleagues at Edinburgh and Aberdeen under the "Future of the Armed Forces" scheme will help take this research further forward. Further to this Vince has also worked on grants examining the "Awareness, attraction and recruitment to the UK Reserve Forces" and reviewing the organisational and psychological factoris underlying "Integration of the Whole Force: understanding barriers and enablers to maximise task and team performance" with colleagues in other universities. More recently he has been leading a project that is examining "Support to the families of Reservists: An investigation of needs, current provision and gaps". The project website is here: Support to the Families of Reservists  

Workshop examining female and ethnic minority awareness, attraction and retention to the British Army 2016.

Vince led a joint workshop with fellow academics representatives from commerce and industry, other Government departments and high level members of the Armed Forces to examine ways the army could improve its record of female and ethnic minority participation. This has led to a number of recommendations that have been taken forward and an edited publication.

Army Personnel Strategy Workshop 2015 "Taking a more professional approach" Oxford Brookes

A high level workshop was recently hosted at Oxford Brookes for senior members of the British Army, other members of the Armed Forces and interested Government Departments. The workshop was jointly organized by Professor Vince Connelly of the Department of Psychology, Social Work & Public Health alongside the Director of Personnel Capability for the British Army, and who is responsible for drafting the new British Army Personnel Strategy for their 100,000+ employees.

The focus of the workshop was to allow members of the armed forces and social scientists to explore and debate how the Army’s personnel policies for the future could reflect the more “professional approach” demanded of the military within today’s modern society.Thus, issues around diversity and how Armed Forces personnel can best represent the society they draw upon, how personnel policies can encourage better representation from women and minorities and how part time and full time workers could work together more efficiently were all to the fore. The workshop findings will inform the work being developed by the Directorate of Personnel Capability for the Army over the next few years with a number of specific actionable recommendations to be carried forward into the future personnel strategy for the Army post 2020.

Related Publications

Connelly, V, Morrison, Z., Fear, N., Hennelly, S. & Smith, J. (2017). Support to the Families of Reservists: An Investigation of Needs, Current Provision and Gaps. Final Report DHCSTC.

Connelly, V. (2017). A response to “Corroding the Iron Division”: Using Reservists to augment HQ 3 UK Division? British Army Review, Autumn Edition.

Connelly, V. (2016). How the Army is employing Regular, Reserve and other personnel as part of the MoD’s Whole Force Concept. Written Evidence submitted to the Army and SDSR 2015 Inquiry, Defence Select Committee, House of Commons, UK.

Connelly, V. (2015). Changing Step: The transition from the Regular Army to civilian life and work. In Manfredi S. & Vickers, L. (Eds.) “Challenges of Active Ageing for Equality Law and the Workplace” Palgrave MacMillan, London, UK.

Connelly, V. (2014). How to build an integrated army. The British Army Journal 2014, 70-73. http://army.newsdeskmedia.com/british-army-2014/how-to-create-an-integrated-army

Connelly, V. & Burgess, M. (2013). Suicide among Falkland war veterans - Understanding why misleading "sound bites" about veterans are more believable than "sound statistics". (Rapid Response) British Medical Journal.http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f3204/rr/677045

Connelly, V. (2013). Cultural differences between the regular army and the TA as barriers to integration. Unpublished paper for Army 2020 Team. London, MoD.

Related Presentations

Connelly, V. (2017). Recruitment and Retention in the Reserve Forces. Chair & Organiser of 4 paper symposium at ERGOMAS biannual meeting, Athens, Greece.

Phillips, R. Connelly, V. & Burgess, M. (2017). Understanding UK Society’s Perception of Veterans. ERGOMAS biannual meeting, Athens, Greece.

Tindall, S, Morrison, Z, Connelly, V, Loretto, W, and Cunningham-Burley, S (2017) Negotiating civilian and military lives: family, work and reservist duty. BSA Conference, 4-6 April 2017, Manchester.

Morrison, Z, Loretto, W, Tindall, S, Connelly, V, and Cunningham-Burley, S. (2016) Changing the mindset? Understanding and addressing the challenges involved in reconfiguring the UK Armed Forces. BSA Work, Employment and Society Conference, 6-8 September 2016, Leeds

Morrison, Z, Loretto, W., Connelly, V. (2016). Stepping in and out of the military profession: Reserve military service as negotiated practice. RC01/ISA Conference “Transformations of the Military Profession” Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Connelly, V. (2016). Reserves today and tomorrow: An international perspective. Chair & Organiser of 4 paper symposium at Inter-University Society for Armed Forces and Society Canada Meeting, Ottawa, USA.

Connelly, V. et al (2016). British Army Home Command Deep Dive into female and ethnic minority recruitment and retention. Chair & Organiser of 3 day conference, Aldershot, UK.

Phillips, R. Connelly, V. & Burgess, M. (2016). Understanding UK Society’s Perception of Veterans. 5th BPS Military Psychology Conference: Defence & Security, Basingstoke, UK.

Connelly, V. (2016). A History of the UK Reserve Forces. Invited presentation to the ESRC Future Reserves Research Programme Integration Day, London, UK.

Connelly, V. (2016). Reserves today and tomorrow: An international perspective. Chair and Organiser for 4 paper symposium at Inter-­‐University Society for Armed Forces and Society Canada Meeting, Ottawa, USA.

Connelly, V. (2015). The Reserve Experience. Chair and Presenter for 5 paper symposium at Inter-University Society for Armed Forces and Society Bi-Annual Meeting. Chicago, USA.

Connelly, V. (2015). The UK Reserve Forces. A historical and conceptual introduction. Invited talk to the MoD Health Statistics Reserves Project Team. Abbey Wood, Bristol.

Connelly, V. (2015). Wounded, Injured and Sick Co-morbidity issues. Changing needs seminar for Army Recovery Capability, Aldershot, UK.

Connelly, V., Cunningham-Burnley, S., Morrison, S & Loretto, W. (2015). Understanding support for Reserve military personnel and their families. Invited talk to the Army Families Federation Research Conference. Andover.

Connelly, V. (2015). Challenges arising from the human dimension. Invited talk to seminar on "Alternative approaches to the delivery of defence & security" as part of the ESRC seminar series "Reconnecting the academic community to British defence and security policy: the 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review (ES/L001616/1)". London.

Connelly, V. (2015). Perceptions of Reservists within the Whole Force. Invited talk to the ESRC/MoD Programme Board for "Future of the Reserve Forces" Programme. London.

Connelly, V. (2014). British Military Culture in Austere Times: Implications for Whole Force (Regular & Reserve) Integration. Invited talk to Assistant Secretary of Defence for Reserve Affairs, Department of Defence, Pentagon, Washington DC.

Connelly, V. (2013). British Army professional military culture: Problems with integrating the reservist (TA) units into the Whole Force Concept? Paper presented at the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society International Conference, Chicago, USA.

Connelly, V. (2013). Taking forward the research on professional value differences between the Regular Army and the Reserves. Paper presented at Royal Signals Institution Workshop on Regular and Reserve Integration. London, UK.

Vince is currently an Honorary Fellow in the School of Molecular, Genetic and Population Health Sciences at the University of Edinburgh as well as being a Fellow of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society. He is also on the advisory board for the King’s Centre for Military Health Research (KCMHR).

Books

• Miller B, McCardle P, Connelly V, Ed., Writing development in struggling learners: Understanding the needs of writers across the lifecourse, Brill (2018)
  ISBN: 9789004345812 eISBN: 9789004346369
  Abstract In Writing Development in Struggling Learners, international writing researchers provide critical insights into the development of writing skills for individuals who struggle to become proficient writers. This edited volume takes a life course view and examines concepts for development of writing skills with a focus on where learners struggle, why this may occur for those without and without specific learning disorders (SLDs), how to identify these learners and what we can do to facilitate efficient writing. Throughout the volume, struggling learners are presented with a holistic lens; contributors succinctly synthesize the literature base and present insights into the current state of the science and areas of future need and advancement.
• Connelly V, Barnett AL, Ed., Teaching and learning writing, British Psychological Society (2009)
  ISBN: 9781854334909
  Abstract This monograph presents recent international research on the teaching and learning of writing. The purpose of the monograph is to inform education professionals about this exciting new research which we hope will, in turn, contribute to improved practice and performance in the classroom.
  The studies in this monograph fall into two broad and overlapping areas of interest. The first is concerned with charting performance and development in writing skills in typical and in special populations. Topics covered include writing as discovery; linguistic development in writing; the writing of children with language impairments; unexpectedly good and poor spellers; and brain activation and idea generation. The second area is concerned directly with assessment, assistance and instruction in writing. Topics covered here range from drawing lessons from research for evidence based writing practice in the classroom; self-regulated strategy development in writing; the development of a new handwriting speed test; and the use of information technology in the classroom for struggling writers.
• Connelly V, Barnett A L, Dockrell J, Tolmie A, Teaching and learning writing, British Psychological Society (2009)
  ISBN: 9781854334909
  Abstract This monograph presents recent international research on the teaching and learning of writing. The purpose of the monograph is to inform education professionals about this exciting new research which we hope will, in turn, contribute to improved practice and performance in the classroom. The studies in this monograph fall into two broad and overlapping areas of interest. The first is concerned with charting performance and development in writing skills in typical and in special populations. Topics covered include writing as discovery; linguistic development in writing; the writing of children with language impairments; unexpectedly good and poor spellers; and brain activation and idea generation. The second area is concerned directly with assessment, assistance and instruction in writing. Topics covered here range from drawing lessons from research for evidence based writing practice in the classroom; self-regulated strategy development in writing; the development of a new handwriting speed test; and the use of information technology in the classroom for struggling writers. Taken together, these papers emphasize the complexity of the writing process and the various levels of analysis that can be used to inform practice; ranging from the purely biological through to meta-analytic techniques that illustrate which particular teaching interventions potentially have the most impact on writing development and why.
• Wood C, Connelly V, Ed., Contemporary perspectives on reading and spelling, Routledge (2009)
  ISBN: 9780415497176
  Abstract With contributions from leading international researchers, Contemporary Perspectives on Reading and Spelling offers a critique of current thinking on the research literature into reading, reading comprehension and writing. Each paper in this volume provides an account of empirical research that challenges aspects of accepted models and widely accepted theories about reading and spelling. This book develops the argument for a need to incorporate less widely cited research into popular accounts of written language development and disability, challenging the idea that the development of a universal theory of written language development is attainable. The arguments within the book are explored in three parts: -overarching debates in reading and spelling -reading and spelling across languages -written language difficulties and approaches to teaching. Opening up the existing debates, and incorporating psychological theory and the politics surrounding the teaching and learning of reading and spelling, this edited collection offers some challenging points for reflection about how the discipline of psychology as a whole approaches the study of written language skills. Highlighting ground-breaking new perspectives, this book forms essential reading for all researchers and practitioners with a focus on the development of reading and spelling skills.Website 

Journal articles

• Connelly V, 'Understanding and explaining the marginalization of part time British Army Reservists'
  Armed Forces and Society x (2020)
  ISSN: 0095-327X
  Abstract

  Recent changes in the British Army mean part time Reservists and full time Regulars need to become better integrated. However, there has been a long history of workplace tensions between the full time and part time elements in the British Army. This mirrors those found in many civilian workplaces. Focus group data with 105 full time Regular British Army soldiers confirmed that time and emotional commitment are strongly linked in a full time professional workplace that has strong, definite and enduring boundaries. This, alongside demands for conformity and stratification by rank explained the high risk of marginalization of part time Reservists.  The legitimacy of part time Reservists, especially in the combat arms, was often challenged. Using this explanatory framework some implications and practical ways that tensions may be reduced between full time and part time members of the British Army, and other Armed Forces facing similar tensions, were highlighted.
  

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• Phillips, R Connelly, V Burgess, M, 'Exploring the Victimization of British Veterans: Comparing British Beliefs about Veterans with Beliefs about Soldiers'
  Armed Forces and Society x (2020)
  ISSN: 0095-327X
  Abstract

  Evidence suggests that most of the UK public appreciate currently serving UK Armed Forces personnel but are less positive in their beliefs about veterans. This research examined the social representations held by civilian participants of UK veterans and serving soldiers to understand why veterans may be seen more negatively. An open-ended word-association task was completed by 234 UK participants where they were asked to provide three initial responses to the words ‘Veteran’ and ‘Soldier’ and to evaluate their responses in accordance to prototypicality. The 1404 resultant associations were grouped into 14 thematic clusters. Using the Hierarchical Evocation Method, the results suggest ‘Heroizing Associations’ to be a defining core-element for ‘Soldier’ and ‘Veteran’ but ‘Victimizing Associations’ to be an element only for ‘Veteran’. Principal Component Analyses suggest ‘Victimizing Associations’ are related to war and deindividuated associations; ‘Heroizing Associations’ are related to characterizations of the veteran’s personality. Implications and future directions are discussed.
  

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• Phillips R, Burgess M, Connelly V, 'Explaining the Relationship between Religiosity and Increased Wellbeing: Avoidance of Identity Threat as a Key Factor'
  Journal of Beliefs and Values x (2020)
  ISSN: 1361-7672
  Abstract

  Previous research outlines a relationship between religiosity and increased mental and physical wellbeing. However, to date findings from quantitative and qualitative research do not offer an unambiguous explanation for this relationship. The study addresses this gap in knowledge by examining underlying identity construction processes in relation to religiosity and wellbeing in the light of Identity Process Theory (Breakwell, 1986, 2001, 2010). Eight Christian converts from different deep-faith groups were recruited via purposive and modified snowball sampling. Detailed descriptions of first-hand experiences were collected by biographic-narrative interviews and analysed by Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The findings suggest that religious elements are integrated into identity content as these respond to a set of motivational principles of identity construction. In doing so, religious elements in identity content contribute to the avoidance of identity threat and to the maintenance of a positive identity structure. The adoption of health-promoting behaviours that relate to the application of beliefs (i.e. practice forgiveness, love oneself and the other, stopping excessive drinking) are consequences thereof and improve mental and physical wellbeing. In conclusion, the relationship between religiosity and wellbeing may be explained by the way in that religious elements in identity impact on identity maintenance process.
  

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• O'Rourke L, Connelly V, Barnett, AL, Afonso O, 'Use of spellcheck in text production by college students with dyslexia'
  Journal of Writing Research 12 (1) (2020) pp.35-62
  ISSN: 2030-1006
  Abstract

  It is widely assumed that by identifying spelling errors and suggesting replacement words, spellcheck allows writers to revise spelling errors even if they do not have the necessary spelling knowledge. However, there have been no studies evaluating the efficacy of modern spellcheck tools for students with spelling difficulties, such as dyslexia. In fact, the very limited and dated research into use of spellcheck by writers with dyslexia indicated that, even when using spellcheck to revise spelling errors, this group left many misspellings in their texts. The current study is the first to investigate whether a modern spellcheck program allows college students with dyslexia to produce texts that are as free from misspellings as texts by their peers, and whether this affects the quality of the text in other ways.
  

  College students with dyslexia (n=18) and a control group of peers (n=18) wrote two short essays using Microsoft Word, one with spellcheck active and one without spellcheck active. Spelling accuracy and overall quality of the texts were measured. Without spellcheck, students with dyslexia made more misspellings than the control group, however, with spellcheck active students from both groups left almost zero misspelled words in their texts. Text quality was not affected. Results demonstrate that spellcheck helps college students with dyslexia to overcome the limitations that poor spelling knowledge imposes. Importantly, results indicate that spellcheck does not lead to improvements in text beyond spelling accuracy, or lead to poorer quality texts, indicating that it is suitable for use in exam conditions.

  Website 
• Phillips R, Connelly V, Burgess M, 'Representations of UK Armed Forces Veterans in the Press.'
  Journal of Political & Military Sociology x (2020)
  ISSN: 2642-2190
  Abstract

  Previous research has shown that British public perception of veterans can be negative and erroneous. Surveys, for example, indicate that veterans are characterized as skilled and valorous individuals but also as suffering from ill-health, unemployment and homelessness. To investigate how these beliefs may form, the present study examines the public dimension of knowledge by analyzing depictions of veterans in the media. A total of 335 newspaper articles that represent UK veterans were downloaded from Google News and UKPressonline. After the articles were classified with a content analysis, chi-squared tests were conducted to understand how the representation of veterans may be related to the political affiliations of news agencies
  and by newspaper format. The results suggest that UK veterans are predominantly represented in both heroic and victimizing contexts. While political affiliation did not affect the representation of veterans significantly, newspaper format did, with broadsheet newspapers emphasizing victimized contexts and local and international newspapers focusing on heroic contexts. Tabloids are a symbolic middle ground between broadsheet, international and local formats. In conclusion, broadsheet newspapers may express sociocultural scrutiny towards the ways in which veterans are treated while local and international newspapers may focus on stereotypical representations of heroic British military actions that veterans may symbolize. Implications and conclusions are discussed.
  

• Sumner E, Connelly V, 'Writing and Revision Strategies of Students with and without Dyslexia'
  Journal of Learning Disabilities 53 (3) (2019) pp.189-198
  ISSN: 0022-2194 eISSN: 1538-4780
  Abstract

  Previous work suggests that written text produced by university students with dyslexia is scored lower than that produced by their peers. The present study used a digital writing tablet to examine the writing process and the quality of text written by university students with dyslexia. Revision behaviour during and after writing was also investigated. Thirty-two university students with dyslexia (mean age, 20 years), were compared to 32 typically-developing (TD) students matched by age. Students composed a written text in response to an expository essay prompt. In line with previous research, students with dyslexia made a higher number of spelling errors and their essays were rated as poorer than TD students. However, students with dyslexia were comparable to their peers on measures of time spent writing, amount of text produced, and the temporal analyses (handwriting execution, pause times). Students with dyslexia made significantly more revisions to spelling during and after transcription than their peers, although other revision behaviour was similar across groups. Explanations for the finding of poor writing quality are explored. Importantly, the findings suggest that continued support with spelling and writing is needed for university students with dyslexia. Instruction directed towards effective revision strategies may also prove useful. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed. 
  

  Website 
• Barnett AL, Connelly V, Miller B, 'The Interaction of Reading, Spelling and Handwriting Difficulties with Writing Development'
  Journal of Learning Disabilities 53 (2) (2019) pp.92-95
  ISSN: 0022-2194 eISSN: 1538-4780
  Website 
• Stuart NJ, Connelly V, Dockrell JE, 'Written verb use and diversity in children with Developmental Language Disorder: Stepping stones to academic writing'
  Reading and Writing 33 (1) (2019) pp.67-96
  ISSN: 0922-4777 eISSN: 1573-0905
  Abstract

  Verb use and the production of verb argument structure in the written texts of children in elementary school is a key stepping stone towards academic writing success that has remained relatively unexplored and is a notable gap in our understanding of writing development.  To evaluate the role of verbs in the written narrative texts of children, we compared verb use in 10 year old children that had specific weaknesses in oral language, those with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), and samples of children of the same age (CA) and the same raw scores on an oral language task (language ability or LAb). Standardised measures of oral language, reading fluency, and spelling were completed. Participants then completed a standardised writing task and the texts were examined for verb argument structure, verb production and verb diversity.  No between-group differences were found in the written narrative texts in relation to the production of verb argument structures.  By contrast, the number of verbs produced, and the number of different verbs used differed significantly. The total number of verbs and number of different verbs produced by the children with DLD was commensurate with their LAb peers but not their CA matched peers. All children relied on a small group of high frequency verbs in their writing, although there was evidence of greater verb diversity in the older typically developing children. Verbs produced and their diversity in narrative writing was predicted by both an oral language formulated sentences task and reading fluency, thus demonstrating the close links between expressive oral language, reading, and writing production in all children.
  

  Website 
• Dockrell JE, Connelly V, Arfe B, 'STRUGGLING WRITERS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: CAPTURING DRIVERS OF PERFORMANCE'
  Learning and Instruction 60 (2019) pp.75-84
  ISSN: 0959-4752
  Abstract

  Conceptualising the difficulties experienced by struggling writers in middle elementary school is of both theoretical and practical importance. To further our understanding of the problems experienced by struggling writers we aimed to identify the writing measure which best discriminated struggling writers from their peers, and the proximal and distal factors which which contributed to performance. The performance of 96 students (Mean age 0;4), 39 of whom were independently identified as struggling writers using a norm referenced standardised test, was examined at word, sentence, and text level. Standardised measures of transcription, oral language and working memory were collected. The extent to which independent product and process writing measures accurately identified the students was tested using ROC analyses. The skills which underpinned performance were examined using regression analyses and path analysis. Written sentence generation was the most sensitive and specific measure to identify struggling writers at this point in development and, was concurrently predicted by both oral sentence level skills, handwriting fluency and listening span. Path models demonstrated that oral language contributed both directly and indirectly to sentence level writing. Implications for developmental models of writing and support for struggling writers are discussed. 

  Website 
• Limpo T, Alves RA, Connelly V, 'Testing the Effectiveness of Handwriting Interventions: : Introduction to the special issue'
  Reading and Writing 31 (6) (2018) pp.1249-1253
  ISSN: 0922-4777 eISSN: 1573-0905
  Abstract This special issue was born within the COST Action IS1401ELN – Strengthening Europeans’ Capabilities by Establishing the European Literacy Network, with the major goal of disseminating evidence-based practices to promote handwriting and motivate researchers to move this research field forward. This issue includes five articles testing a different range of interventions to promote handwriting in students with and without disabilities from kindergarten to middle grades, across multiple contexts (viz., United States, Switzerland, Belgium, and Portugal). A final commentary paper closes the special issue with a discussion on the importance of acquiring fluent and legible handwriting along with the contributions and limitations of the investigations presented in the special issue.Website 
• Sakr M, Connelly V, Wild M, 'Imitative or Iconoclastic? How young children use ready-made images in digital art'
  International Journal of Art and Design Education 37 (1) (2018) pp.41-52
  ISSN: 1476-8062 eISSN: 1476-8070
  Abstract Digital art-making tends to foreground the inclusion of ready-made images in children's art. While some lament children's use of such images, suggesting that they constrain creativity and expression, others have argued that ready-made digital materials offer children the opportunity to create innovative and potentially iconoclastic artefacts through processes of ‘remix’ and ‘mash-up’. In order to further this debate, observations are needed to explore the different ways that children use ready-made images in their digital art and the various purposes that these images can serve. Adopting a social semiotic perspective, this article offers an in-depth examination of five episodes of 4–5 year-olds’ digital art-making that collectively demonstrate the diversity of approaches that young children take towards the inclusion of ready-made images in their digital art-making. The article discusses these findings in relation to suggestions for what adults can do to support children to adopt a playful and critically aware approach to the use of ready-made images in digital art-making.Website 
• Limpo T, Alves RA, Connelly V, 'Examining the Transcription-Writing Link: Effects of Handwriting Fluency and Spelling Accuracy on Writing Performance via Planning and Translating in Middle Grades'
  Learning and Individual Differences 53 (2017) pp.26-36
  ISSN: 1041-6080
  Abstract This study examined the relationships between transcription, high-level writing processes, and writing performance in Grades 7–8 (N = 196). Structural equation modeling was used to test the direct effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on planning and translating, and of these latter on writing performance, as well as the indirect effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on writing performance, via planning and translating. Results showed that the proposed model fitted the data extremely well, explaining 46% of the variability in writing performance. We found that higher handwriting fluency was associated with better planning skills, higher spelling accuracy was associated with better translating skills, and better planning and translating skills were associated with greater writing performance. We found indirect effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on writing performance, respectively, via planning and translating. These results suggest that transcription continues to impact on writing during teenage school years, by constraining high-level writing processes.Website 
• Birchenough JM, Davies R, Connelly V, 'Rated age-of-acquisition norms for over 3,200 German words.'
  Behavior Research Methods 49 (2) (2016) pp.484-501
  ISSN: 1554-351X eISSN: 1554-3528
  Abstract Words that have been learned early in life are responded to faster than words that have been acquired later. Subjective ratings of acquisition ages have been successfully employed to study the effect of age of acquisition (AoA). Although a large number of norms exist in many languages, fewer are available for German. Therefore, subjective AoA ratings for 3,259 German words were collected online, including 2,363 nouns and 473 verbs. These words were presented in lists of 140 words, and participants rated the age in years at which they had first learned each word. A split-half correlation testified to a high internal reliability. There were also high correlations with rated AoA values for subsets of the items that had been collected in previous studies, in both German and English. Age and gender were found to influence the ratings very weakly, in that older and male participants tended to give slightly higher age ratings. Education, multilingualism, and frequent usage of languages other than German did not exert an influence on the rating values. These new ratings will extend the currently existing norms available for language and reading research across languages and will provide researchers with a wider choice of word stimuli. The ratings are available expressed in two measurements: age in years, and AoA rated on a 7-point Likert scale.Website 
• Sakr M, Connelly V, Wild M, '"Evil cats" and "jelly floods": young children’s collective constructions of digital art-making in the early years classroom'
  Journal of Research in Childhood Education 30 (1) (2016) pp.128-141
  ISSN: 0256-8543 eISSN: 2150-2641
  Abstract

  Digital technologies have the potential to offer new opportunities for children’s expressive arts practices. While adult expectations surround and shape children’s visual art-making on paper in the early years classroom, such expectations are not so established in relation to digital art-making. So how do children make sense of digital art-making when it is newly introduced into the classroom and adult input is minimal? Drawing on a social semiotic ethnographic perspective, this paper explores this question by examining instances of 4-5 year olds’ spoken dialogue around the computer during a week in which digital art-making was first introduced into the classroom. Analysis focused on interactions where children proposed, reinforced or challenged conceptions of digital art-making. These interactions demonstrated that children’s digital art-making was negotiated and constructed through particular processes. Three such processes are presented here: the use of collective motifs and metaphors; attributing ‘expert’ status; and polarizing conflicts. Understanding these processes offers a starting point for thinking about how a new activity like digital art-making can be integrated into the early years classroom and supported by practitioners. 

  Website 
• Alstad Z, Sanders E, Abbott RD, Barnett A, Henderson S, Connelly V, Berninger V, 'Modes of alphabet letter production during middle childhood and adolescence: Interrelationships with each other and other writing skills'
  Journal of Writing Research 6 (3) (2015) pp.199-231
  ISSN: 2030-1006
  Abstract

  Although handwriting is typically taught during early childhood and keyboarding may not be taught explicitly, both may be relevant to writing development in the later grades. Thus, Study 1 investigated automatic production of the ordered alphabet from memory for manuscript (unjoined), cursive (joined), and keyboard letter modes (alphabet 15 sec) and their relationships with each other and spelling and composing in typically developing writers in grades 4 to 7 (N = 113). Study 2 compared students with dysgraphia (impaired handwriting, n=27), dyslexia (impaired word spelling, n=40), or oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax composing, n=11) or controls without specific writing disabilities (n=10) in grades 4 to 9 (N=88) on the same alphabet 15 modes, manner of copying (best or fast), spelling, and sentence composing. In Study 1, sequential multilevel model regressions of predictor alphabet 15 letter production/selection modes on spelling and composition outcomes, measured annually from grade 4 to grade 7 (ages 9 to 13 years), showed that only the cursive mode uniquely, positively, and consistently predicted both spelling and composing in each grade. For composing, in grade 4 manuscript mode was positively predictive and in grades 5-7 keyboard selection was. In Study 2 all letter production modes correlated with each other and one’s best and fast sentence copying, spelling, and timed sentence composing. The groups with specific writing disabilities differed from control group on alphabet 15 manuscript mode, copy fast, and timed sentence composing. The dysgraphia and dyslexia groups differed on copying sentences in one’s best handwriting, with the dysgraphia group scoring lower. The educational and theoretical significance of the findings are discussed for multiple modes and manners of letter production/selection of the alphabet that support spelling and composing beyond the early grades in students with and without specific writing disabilities.   

  Website 
• Sakr M, Connelly V, Wild M, 'Narrative in young children’s digital art-making'
  Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 16 (3) (2015) pp.289-310
  ISSN: 1468-7984 eISSN: 1741-2919
  Abstract

  Digital technologies have material and social properties that have the potential to create new opportunities for children’s expressive arts practices. The presence and development of oral narratives in young children’s visual art-making on paper has been noted in previous research, but little is known about the narratives children create when they engage in digital art-making. How do young children construct narratives during digital art-making? How do the features of these narratives relate to the social and material properties of the digital resources they are using? How can looking at these narratives inform and enrich our understanding of children’s art-making in general? Drawing on a social semiotic perspective, these questions are explored through an in-depth analysis of narrative in three examples of 4-5 year olds’ digital art-making. On the basis of the analysis, features of oral narrative in young children’s digital art-making are suggested and these are linked to potentially influential properties of the digital resources. Being aware of these features and properties offers a starting point for thinking about what digital resources can offer in the context of young children’s art-making. The findings also prompt us to be aware of the diverse potentials that exist in children’s art-making practices regardless of the resources being used.

  Website 
• Sumner E, Connelly V, Barnett A L, 'The Influence of Spelling Ability on Vocabulary Choices when Writing for Children with Dyslexia'
  Journal of Learning Disabilities 49 (3) (2014) pp.293-304
  ISSN: 0022-2194 eISSN: 1538-4780
  Abstract

  Spelling is a prerequisite to expressing vocabulary in writing. Research has shown that children with dyslexia are hesitant spellers when composing. This study aimed to determine whether the hesitant spelling of children with dyslexia, evidenced by frequent pausing, affects vocabulary choices when writing. A total of 31 children with dyslexia, mean age 9 years, were compared to typically developing groups of children: the first matched by age, the second by spelling ability. Oral vocabulary was measured and children completed a written and verbal compositional task. Lexical diversity comparisons were made across written and verbal compositions to highlight the constraint of having to select and spell words. A digital writing tablet recorded the writing. Children with dyslexia and the spelling-ability group made a high proportion of spelling errors and within-word pauses, and had a lower lexical diversity within their written compositions compared to their verbal compositions. The age-matched peers demonstrated the opposite pattern. Spelling ability and pausing predicted 53% of the variance in written lexical diversity of children with dyslexia, demonstrating the link between spelling and vocabulary when writing. Oral language skills had no effect. Lexical diversity correlated with written and verbal text quality for all groups. Practical implications are discussed and related to writing models.

  Website 
• Critten S, Connelly V, Dockrell JE, Walter K, 'Inflectional and derivational morphological spelling abilities of children with specific language impairment'
  Frontiers in Psychology 5 (948) (2014)
  ISSN: 1664-1078
  Abstract

  Children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) are known to have difficulties with spelling but the factors that underpin these difficulties, are a matter of debate. The present study investigated the impact of oral language and literacy on the bound morpheme spelling abilities of children with SLI. Thirty-three children with SLI (9–10 years) and two control groups, one matched for chronological age (CA) and one for language and spelling age (LA) (aged 6–8 years) were given dictated spelling tasks of 24 words containing inflectional morphemes and 18 words containing derivational morphemes. There were no significant differences between the SLI group and their LA matches in accuracy or error patterns for inflectional morphemes. By contrast when spelling derivational morphemes the SLI group was less accurate and made proportionately more omissions and phonologically implausible errors than both control groups. Spelling accuracy was associated with phonological awareness and reading; reading performance significantly predicted the ability to spell both inflectional and derivational morphemes. The particular difficulties experienced by the children with SLI for derivational morphemes are considered in relation to reading and oral language.

  Website 
• Dockrell JE, Connelly V, Walter K, Critten S,, 'Assessing children's writing products: the role of curriculum based measures'
  British Educational Research Journal 41 (4) (2014) pp.575-595
  ISSN: 0141-1926 eISSN: 1469-3518
  Abstract

  The assessment of children's writing raises technical and practical challenges. In this paper we examine the potential use of a curriculum based measure for writing (CBM-W) to assess the written texts of pupils in Key Stage 2 (M age 107 months, range 88 to 125). Two hundred and thirty six Year three, five and six pupils completed a standardized assessment of writing quality. Pupils also responded to two writing probes, one expository and one narrative, at baseline and five months later. In response to the probe pupils wrote for five minutes. Transcribed texts were scored for productivity (total words produced, correct word sequences, number of punctuation marks and sentences produced) and accuracy (proportion of words spelled correctly, correct word sequences and punctuation marks). The CBM –W measures were differentially sensitive to development and showed construct validity as evidenced by their association with the norm- referenced test measuring writing quality. Change over time was also evident and significant differences between narrative and expository texts were found. Pupils with special educational needs scored significantly more poorly on the CBM-W. Potential implications for research and practice are considered.

  Website 
• Sumner E, Connelly V, Barnett AL, 'The Influence of Spelling Ability on Handwriting Production: Children with and without Dyslexia'
  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 40 (5) (2014) pp.1441-1447
  ISSN: 0278-7393
  Abstract

  Current models of writing do not sufficiently address the complex relationship between the 2 transcription skills: spelling and handwriting. For children with dyslexia and beginning writers, it is conceivable that spelling ability will influence rate of handwriting production. Our aim in this study was to examine execution speed and temporal characteristics of handwriting when completing sentence-copying tasks that are free from composing demands and to determine the predictive value of spelling, pausing, and motor skill on handwriting production. Thirty-one children with dyslexia (Mage = 9 years 4 months) were compared with age-matched and spelling-ability matched children (Mage = 6 years 6 months). A digital writing tablet and Eye and Pen software were used to analyze handwriting. Children with dyslexia were able to execute handwriting at the same speed as the age-matched peers. However, they wrote less overall and paused more frequently while writing, especially within words. Combined spelling ability and within-word pausing accounted for over 76% of the variance in handwriting production of children with dyslexia, demonstrating that productivity relies on spelling capabilities. Motor skill did not significantly predict any additional variance in handwriting production. Reading ability predicted performance of the age-matched group, and pausing predicted performance for the spelling-ability group. The findings from the digital writing tablet highlight the interactive relationship between the transcription skills and how, if spelling is not fully automatized, it can constrain the rate of handwriting production. Practical implications are also addressed, emphasizing the need for more consideration to be given to what common handwriting tasks are assessing as a whole. 

  Website 
• Dockrell JE, Connelly V, 'The role of oral language in underpinning the text generation difficulties in children with specific language impairment'
  JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN READING 38 (1) (2013) pp.18-34
  ISSN: 0141-0423
  Abstract

  Children with specific language impairments (SLI) have difficulties in producing written text. It was hypothesised that the constraints on writing in children with SLI were similar to typically developing younger children with the same level of vocabulary knowledge. Twenty-three children with SLI (aged 10:5) were matched with 23 children for chronological age (CA) and 23 children for vocabulary levels (VC). Children with SLI performed significantly below their CA peers but not their VC peers on all aspects of writing including spelling. Regression analyses indicated that written text measures of spelling errors and oral language measures of vocabulary were significant predictors of writing products for both the children with SLI and their VC peers. This highlights the importance of oral and written language for the quality of children's written text and indicates that the writing of children with SLI was commensurate with their vocabulary and spelling levels. The results point to the role of both phonological and non-phonological processes in written text production in struggling writers.

  Website 
• Barnes J, Connelly V, Boubert L, Maravic K, 'Behavioural coping patterns in Parkinson's patients with visual hallucinations'
  Journal of Neuropsychology 7 (2) (2013) pp.326-334
  ISSN: 1748-6645
  Abstract Visual Hallucinations are considered to affect about 20%–40% of patients with Parkinson's disease. They are generally seen as a side effect of this long-term illness and can severely affect the daily quality of life of patients. The aim of this study was to determine the coping patterns or strategies used by patients and establish whether the phenomenology and behaviours used by patients enabled control of the phenomenon. Demographic and clinical variables were recorded, including motor measures, cognitive status, and depressive symptoms. Patient with hallucinations were at a more advance stage of the disease and displayed more depressive symptoms than their non-hallucinating counterparts. Most patients used more than one constructive coping strategy, the most common were simple behavioural strategies based around motor action or cognitive approaches resulting in visual modification. In addition, humour was a common technique used by the patients to deal with the phenomenon. Emotional responses varied between patients, but it was found that the actual content of the hallucination was not directly associated with whether it caused trouble to the patient, but perceived stress was strongly correlated with the subjective disturbing nature of visual hallucinations (VHs). This study gives insight into the role of cognitive-behavioural approaches when dealing with VHs and opens up avenues for future studies in helping patient to deal with hallucinations.Website 
• Connelly V, Dockrell J, Walter K, Critten S, 'Predicting the quality of composition and written language bursts from oral language, spelling, and handwriting skills in children with and without specific language impairment'
  Written Communication 29 (3) (2012) pp.278-302
  ISSN: 0741-0883 eISSN: 1552-8472
  Abstract

  Writers typically produce their writing in bursts. In this article, the authors examine written language bursts in a sample of 33 children aged 11 years with specific language impairment. Comparisons of the children with specific language impairment with an age-matched group of typically developing children (n = 33) and a group of younger, language skill-matched children (n = 33) revealed the role of writing bursts as a key factor in differentiating writing competence. All the children produced the same number of writing bursts in a timed writing task. Children with specific language impairment produced a shorter number of words in each burst than did the age-matched group but the same as the language skill-matched group. For all groups, spelling accuracy and handwriting speed were significant predictors of burst length and text quality. The frequency of pauses at misspellings was related to shorter bursts. These results offer support to Hayes's model of text generation; namely, burst length is constrained by language and transcription skills.

  Website 
• Connelly V, Barnett A, 'Children with dyslexia are slow writers because they pause more often and not because they are slow at handwriting execution'
  Reading and Writing 26 (6) (2012) pp.991-1008
  ISSN: 0922-4777 eISSN: 1573-0905
  Abstract It is commonly assumed that children with dyslexia are slower at handwriting than other children. However, evidence of slow handwriting in children with dyslexia is very mixed. Thirty-one children with dyslexia, aged 9 years, were compared to both age-matched children and younger spelling-ability matched children. Participants completed an alphabet-writing task and a composition task on the surface of a digital writing tablet. Children with dyslexia wrote the same amount of letters per minute in the alphabet task but wrote fewer words per minute when composing their texts than children of the same age. Crucially, no differences were found between children with dyslexia and their same age peers for speed of handwriting execution, measured by the tablet, when writing the alphabet or composing their texts. However, children with dyslexia were found to pause within their compositions as often as the spelling ability matched group. Thus handwriting execution is not impaired in children with dyslexia. The slow writing that is typical of children with dyslexia is due to pausing more often when composing and is related to spelling ability. This may reflect processing problems in response to high cognitive load through having to contend with spelling and composing concurrently.Website 
• Dockrell J, Connelly V, 'The role of oral language in ­underpinning the text generation ­difficulties in children with specific ­language impairment'
  Journal of Research in Reading Early View (-) (2012) pp.--
  ISSN: 0141-0423
  Abstract

  Children with specific language impairments (SLI) have difficulties in producing written text. It was hypothesised that the constraints on writing in children with SLI were similar to typically developing younger children with the same level of vocabulary knowledge. Twenty-three children with SLI (aged 10:5) were matched with 23 children for chronological age (CA) and 23 children for vocabulary levels (VC). Children with SLI performed significantly below their CA peers but not their VC peers on all aspects of writing including spelling. Regression analyses indicated that written text measures of spelling errors and oral language measures of vocabulary were significant predictors of writing products for both the children with SLI and their VC peers. This highlights the importance of oral and written language for the quality of children's written text and indicates that the writing of children with SLI was commensurate with their vocabulary and spelling levels. The results point to the role of both phonological and non-phonological processes in written text production in struggling writers.

  Website 
• Barnes J, Connelly V, Wiggs L, Boubert L, Maravic K, 'Sleep patterns in Parkinson's disease patients with visual hallucinations'
  International Journal of Neuroscience 120 (8) (2010) pp.564-569
  ISSN: 0020-7454
  Abstract

  Visual hallucinations (VHs) in Parkinson" s disease (PD) can be a frequent and disturbing complication of the disease with 33% of PD patients undergoing long-term treatment experiencing VHs during the course of their illness. One line of evidence that is emerging as a possible risk factor in the occurrence of VHs is the sleep-wake cycle and sleep behavior in patients with PD. This study compared sleep patterns in a group of visually hallucinating Parkinson" s patients with a group of nonhallucinating PD patients and an age-matched control group. Nocturnal sleep was assessed by actigraphy and diaries, while daytime sleepiness and function were assessed by a battery of self-rating sleep questionnaires. Compared with the control group both patient groups had more sleep-related problems and significantly altered sleep patterns, as measured by both actigraphy and sleep questionnaires. Patients who hallucinated however slept less than nonhallucinating patients and also had increased awakenings after sleep onset, reduced sleep efficiency, and increased daytime sleepiness. We propose that VHs in some PD patients may be a symptom of poor sleep and prolonged daytime sleepiness, suggesting that arousal may play a role in the genesis of the hallucination phenomenon.

  Website 
• Thompson G B, Connelly V, Fletcher-Flinn C, Hodson S J, 'The nature of skilled adult reading varies with type of instruction in childhood'
  Memory and Cognition 37 (2) (2009) pp.223-234
  ISSN: 0090-502X
  Abstract

  Does the type of reading instruction experienced during the initial years at school have any continuing effect on the ways in which adults read words? The question has arisen in current discussions about computational models of mature word-reading processes. We tested predicted continuing effects by comparing matched samples of skilled adult readers of English who had received explicit phonics instruction in childhood and those who had not. In responding to nonwords that can receive alternative legitimate pronunciations, those adults having childhood phonics instruction used more regular grapheme-phoneme correspondences that were context free and used fewer vocabulary-based contextually dependent correspondences than did adults who had no phonics instruction. These differences in regularization of naming responses also extended to some low-frequency words. This apparent cognitive footprint of childhood phonics instruction is a phenomenon requiring consideration when researchers attempt to model adult word reading and when they select participants to test the models.

  Website 
• Dockrell JE, Lindsay G, Connelly V, 'The impact of specific language impairment on adolescents' written text'
  Exceptional Children 75 (4) (2009) pp.427-446
  ISSN: 0014-4029
  Abstract This study examined the writing performance of 58 students with a history of specific language impairment, assessing them at ages 8, 11, 12, 14, and 16 to evaluate longitudinal trajectories of writing performance and relationships with oral language, reading, and handwriting fluency. At age 16, participants continued to experience problems with oral language and literacy: Their writing evidenced short texts, poor sentence structure, and difficulties with ideas and organization. Concurrent measures of vocabulary and spelling were significant factors in explaining writing performance. Handwriting fluency remained a particular difficulty for the current cohort and directly affected writing performance. Path analysis indicated that previous levels of literacy mediated the impact of oral language skills.Website 
• Thompson GB, McKay M, Fletcher-Flinn C, Connelly V, Kaa RT, Ewing J, 'Do children who acquire word reading without explicit phonics employ compensatory learning? Issues of phonological recoding, lexical orthography, and fluency'
  Reading and Writing 21 (5) (2008) pp.505-537
  ISSN: 0922-4777 eISSN: 1573-0905
  Abstract Two studies were conducted across three countries to examine samples of beginning readers without systematic explicit phonics who had reached the same level of word reading accuracy as comparison samples with high and moderate explicit phonics. Had they employed any compensatory learning to reach that level? Four hypotheses of compensatory learning or performance were tested on the samples, all of which represented the lower half of the normative distribution of word reading accuracy. The two samples without explicit phonics received teaching that centered on story text reading and some receptive phonics that arose from this text reading. They did not compensate by relatively greater use of a larger psycholinguistic grain size in the form of rime units. Nor did they compensate by trading off comprehension for text word reading accuracy. In a microtraining study, they showed no compensation in proficiency of initial learning of lexical orthographic representations. For all samples, this initial learning was less effective with spelling than reading training trials. In reading text, the samples without explicit phonics did not compensate by trading off speed for accuracy, or comprehension. On the contrary, they read text faster than the explicit phonics samples. The extra classroom instruction time available to them for text reading, with the consequential extra exposure and practice of word reading, would explain this result. Website 
• Dockrell JE, Lindsay G, Connelly V, Mackie C, 'Constraints in the Production of Written Text in Children With Specific Language Impairments'
  Exceptional Children 73 (2) (2007) pp.147-164
  ISSN: 0014-4029
  Abstract The writing performance of 64 elementary school children with a history of specific language impairment was examined to evaluate both the nature of the children's difficulties with writing and the relationship between oral language, reading, and writing. Children were assessed at age 8 on a range of language, literacy, and cognitive measures and reassessed at age 10 when they completed a standardized writing measure. At age 10 the children continued to experience problems with oral language and language levels were significantly poorer than nonverbal skills. Writing was characterized by short texts with poor sentence structure and little evidence of ideas and organization. Both concurrent measures of receptive vocabulary and reading skill were significant factors in explaining levels of written language.Website 
• Connelly V, MacLean M, Barnes J, 'Contribution of lower-order letter and word fluency skills to written composition of college students with or without dyslexia'
  Developmental Neuropsychology 29 (1) (2006) pp.175-196
  ISSN: 8756-5641
  Abstract There has been a growth in students with dyslexia attending university. These students commonly rate writing as one of their greatest problem areas. Our research set out to describe the effects of dyslexia on the writing skills of students compared to age-matched peers and a spelling-skill-matched group. Generally, the texts of the students with dyslexia were poorer than age controls but not poorer than the spelling-skill controls. However, there were no major differences in "higher order" skills such as ideas and organization with the chronological age controls, only in "lower order" transcription skills such as spelling and handwriting fluency. The students with dyslexia made more spelling errors in their essays than one would predict given their dictated spelling skills.Website 
• Connelly V, Dockrell J E, Barnett J, 'A pilot intervention to improve the structural quality of exam essay writing in UK undergraduate psychology students'
  Psychology Teaching Review 12 (1) (2006) pp.43-56
  ISSN: 0965-948X
  Abstract Psychology undergraduates need to produce good quality essays in order to succeed at university. Students find the transition to university writing difficult. Using a rubric, a profile of student weakness in psychology essay writing was described. The students were generally poor at the structural organisation of their essays. A pilot intervention to improve essay structure was designed based on the profile of student weakness. The intervention was trialled with a group of 23 psychology undergraduate students. Those students who took part in the intervention programme had higher exam essay marks with longer and more clearly structured essays after the programme than a matched group of controls. The intervention group students produced essays that linked evidence more clearly to topics and provided better conclusion sections. Psychology tutors were able to show improvement in student writing with a short explicit lesson based on a discipline-specific profile of writing. However, there was no improvement in vocabulary for linking topics and the structure of the introductions remained poor. Ideas for the further development of this intervention are discussed. Website 
• Connelly V, Campbell S, MacLean M, Barnes J, 'Contribution of Lower Order Skills to the Written Composition of College Students With and Without Dyslexia'
  Developmental Neuropsychology 29 (1) (2006) pp.175-196
  ISSN: 8756-5641
  Abstract There has been a growth in students with dyslexia attending university. These students commonly rate writing as one of their greatest problem areas. Our research set out to describe the effects of dyslexia on the writing skills of students compared to age-matched peers and a spelling-skill-matched group. Generally, the texts of the students with dyslexia were poorer than age controls but not poorer than the spelling-skill controls. However, there were no major differences in "higher order" skills such as ideas and organization with the chronological age controls, only in "lower order" transcription skills such as spelling and handwriting fluency. The students with dyslexia made more spelling errors in their essays than one would predict given their dictated spelling skills.Website 
• Connelly V, Dockrell JE, Barnett J, 'The slow handwriting of undergraduate students constrains overall performance in exam essays'
  Educational Psychology 25 (1) (2005) pp.99-107
  ISSN: 0144-3410
  Abstract Undergraduates producing handwritten essays in university exams need to transcribe information onto the page in a rapid and efficient manner under considerable time pressure. In fact, capacity models of the writing process predict that the more automated students can make the transcription process then the more resources will be available for higher order writing processes. This study examined the impact of low level handwriting processes on undergraduate writing in pressurised and unpressurised tasks. Students completed a measure of handwriting fluency and provided samples of writing from exam conditions and a formative class essay. The results indicated that, compared to a class essay, exam writing was constrained by the low level writing skill of handwriting fluency. Surprisingly, it was found that the undergraduates were very slow writers whose writing speed was equivalent to published fluency data on 11-year-old schoolchildren. The relationships between handwriting fluency and writing quality were also very similar to those of published data on 11-year-old children, with handwriting fluency accounting for large amounts of the variance in writing quality and tutor marks for exam answers. The results of the current study indicate that lower level processes constrain the higher level performance of undergraduate students to a significant extent. This limitation needs to be considered when undergraduate exams are designed and inferences drawn from exam performance.Website 
• Connelly V, Fletcher-Flinn CM, Thompson GB, Hodson S, 'Why Instructional Methods Can No Longer Be Ignored in Theories of the Reading Process'
  Australian Journal of Psychology 56 (supplement) (2005) pp.115-115
  ISSN: 0004-9530 eISSN: 1742-9536
  Website 
• Connelly V, 'Graphophonemic awareness, in adults after instruction in phonic generalisations'
  Learning and Instruction 12 (6) (2002) pp.627-649
  ISSN: 0959-4752
  Abstract A number of studies have shown, counter-intuitively, that skilled adult readers find it difficult to correctly relate phonemes to graphemes in written words. In most adults this is of little consequence. However, teachers are required to show children how to relate phonemes to graphemes when teaching reading. This study investigated whether a brief period of instruction would improve the ability of adults in this task. Results showed a general level of improvement relative to controls. Exposure alone to the task had no effect. Improvement for the instructed group was not very large and there was difficulty relating phonemes to graphemes which had more than one letter. It may be that trainee teachers need instruction to improve knowledge of grapheme phoneme correspondence so that they can pass such knowledge onto young readers. Website 
• Connelly V, Gee D, Walsh E, 'A comparison of keyboarded and handwritten compositions and the relationship with transcription speed'
  77 (2) (2002) pp.479-492
  Abstract Background. It is well established that handwriting fluency constrains writing quality by limiting resources for higher order processes such as planning and reviewing. According to the"simple view of writing" then slow keyboarding speed should hinder the quality of keyboarded essay compositions in the same way that slow handwriting hinders handwritten essay compositions. Given a lack of touch-typing instruction in UK schools it was hypothesized that children's written compositions produced via the keyboard would be worse than produced by hand. Aims. To extend the work of Christensen (2004) and Rogers and Case-Smith (2002) by examining the relationship between handwriting fluency and keyboarding fluency throughout the primary school and studying the link between word-processed compositional quality and keyboarding fluency. Samples and methods. The handwriting fluency and keyboarding fluency of 300 children in primary school were measured. Year S and year 6 children completed a measure of compositional quality by hand and by keyboard. Results and comment. There was a high correlation between handwriting and keyboarding speed and handwriting speed was consistently faster than keyboarding speed across all ages. Only a small minority of children in years 5 and 6 had faster keyboarding than handwriting speed. Results showed that children's compositional quality was superior in the handwritten scripts as opposed to the keyboarded scripts. Keyboarded scripts were up to 2 years behind handwritten scripts in development. Writing by keyboard does not necessarily lead to improvements in script quality, compared with handwritten scripts. Explicit keyboarding instruction (touch-typing) is needed to develop keyboarding fluency and unlock the full potential of the word processor for children's writing. Website 
• Connelly V, Johnston R, Thompson GB, 'The effect of phonics instruction on the reading comprehension of beginning readers'
  READING AND WRITING 14 (5) (2001) pp.423-457
  ISSN: 0922-4777
  Abstract This study investigated whether two groups of 6-year-old beginning readers taught to read by a phonics and by a "book experience'' non-phonics approach would differ in reading comprehension as well as the processes of word recognition. The two groups were matched for word recognition but despite this, the phonics taught children had higher reading comprehension. Phonics taught children produced more contextually appropriate errors, and in both single word and text reading made more spoken attempts at reading unknown words. The non-phonics taught children had much faster reading reaction times to familiar words but they scored less in phoneme segmentation and nonword reading tasks. Compared with the non-phonics group, the phonics group spent more time in attempts at identifying unknown words and this included using contextual information, which apparently resulted in more rehearsal of the meaning of the story text and hence better reading comprehension performance.Website 
• Connelly V, Johnston RS, Thompson GB, 'The influence of instructional technique on the reading acquisition routes of beginning readers'
  INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 31 (3/4) (1996) pp.2481-2481
  ISSN: 0020-7594 eISSN: 1464-066X
  Abstract

  Scottish beginning readers taught by a phonic method are compared with New Zealand children taught by a book experience approach. Samples are matched for reading age, chronological age, time at school, vocabulary knowledge and digit span. Tests of word recognition, phonological skills, reaction time and comprehension were administered. Results show differences in nonword and irregular word reading, phonological skill, comprehension, reaction time and error production. Despite being matched on general ability both groups show differences in subskills associated with reading that would appear to stem from how they have been taught. This work has implications for models of reading development.
  

  Website 
• Connelly V, Johnston RS, Thompson GB, 'The influence of instructional-technique on the reading acquisition routes of beginning readers'
  INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 31 (3-4) (1996) pp.2481-2481
  ISSN: 0020-7594 eISSN: 1464-066X
  

Book chapters

• Griffith J, Connelly V, Catignani S, Johansson E, 'Reservists and Veterans: Viewed from Within and Without' in Handbook of Military Sciences, Springer Link (2020)
  eISBN: 9783030028664
  Abstract

  This chapter describes two important groups relative to military service – reservists and veterans. Definitions are provided regarding who is a member of each group. A summary of past and current research findings for each group is provided. The summary is organized by investigative topics or themes, which provide the current scope of the field for reservists and for veterans. Finally, approaches to the study of reservists and veterans are described, along with challenges – both substantively and methodologically – for future research studies. These serve as fertile areas for improvements and investigations in future research studies.
  

  Website 
• Sakr M, Connelly V, Wild M, 'Teachers’ use of writing in displays of young children’s artwork' in Archer A, Breur E (ed.), Multimodality in Writing: The state of the art in theory, methodology and pedagogy, Brill (2015)
  ISBN: 9789004296572 eISBN: 9789004297197
  Abstract Chapter 12Website 
• Connelly V, 'Integrating writing and oral language disorders: Perspectives of a Writing Researcher' in Writing development in children with hearing loss,dyslexia or oral language problems: implications for assessment and instruction, Oxford University Press (2014)
  ISBN: 9780199827282
  Abstract

  This chapter is a reflection on the research presented throughout the book and poses questions about where writing and oral language research needs to go next. The author makes the cases that true integration of writing and oral-language research requires agreed definitions, common measurement and terminology, and that these are needed if new and emerging technical tools to investigate writing processes, such as digital writing capture, are to make a difference. There is also a call for more cross-linguistic research and for researchers to continue to challenge writing theory by examining writing and oral language difficulties in those children with difficulties such as dyslexia. There also needs to be a clearer integration of research with the “task environment” and, in particular, classroom instruction.

  Website 
• Dockrell JE, Connelly V, Lindsay G, Mackie C, 'The Impact of Oral Language Skills on Children’s Production of Written Text' in Learning to Write Effectively: Current Trends in European Research, Brill (2012)
  ISBN: 978-1-78052-928-8 431 eISBN: 978-1-78052-929-5
  Abstract Chapter 1.00.10Website 

Other publications

• Connelly V, Sumner E, O'Rourke L, 'How being a poor speller can seriously lift your talents as a writer'
  Learning Difficulty Australia Bulletin 51 (1) (2019) pp.17-21Website 
• Connelly V, Morrison Z, Fear N, Hennelly S, Smith J, 'Support to the Families of Reservists: An Investigation of Needs, Current Provision and Gaps. Final Report DHCSTC.'
  (2017)
• Connelly V., 'Written submission to House of Commons Defence Committee inquiry on SDSR 2015 and the Army August 2016'
  (2016)
• Parry E, Connelly V, Robinson D, Robinson Z, Taylor C, 'Integration of the Whole Force: Understanding barriers and enablers to maximise task and team performance.Final Report DHCSTC.'
  

  Report for the Ministry of Defence DHCSTC research programme.

  (2016)
• Parry E, Morrison Z, Robinson D, Snowdon E, Swift S, Rennick K, Booth C, Connelly V, 'Awareness, Attraction and Retention of the Reserve Forces. Final Report, DHCSTC'
  

  Report for Ministry of Defence DHCSTC research programme

  (2016)

Edited Books

McCardle, P, Miller, B & Connelly, V (In Prep for 2016). Writing development for individuals with learning difficulties or specific learning disorders. EARLI book series, Brill Publishing.

Wood, C & Connelly, V. (2009). Contemporary Perspectives on Reading and Spelling. Routledge Imprint.

Connelly, V., Barnett, A., & Dockrell, J.E. (2009). The teaching of writing: Lessons from research. Monograph of the British Journal of Educational Psychology. BPS Journals.

Book Chapters

Afosons, O, Connelly, V. Barnett, A. (In Press). Struggling with writing: An examination of writing difficulties in SLI,
Developmental Dyslexia and DCD. 

Dockrell, J.E. & Connelly, V. (In Press). The relationships between oral and written sentence generation in English speaking children: the role of language and literacy skills. In J. Perera, M. Aparici, E. Rosado, N. Salas (Eds). Written and Spoken Language Development across the Lifespan. London. Springer International Publishing.

Connelly, V. (2015). Foreword. In M. Deane, T Guasch (Eds.) Learning and teaching Writing Online: strategies for success. (pp. VII-VIII), Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.

Connelly, V. & Dockrell, J.E. (2015). “Struggling with writing”:The challenges for children with dyslexia and language learning difficulty when learning to write. In P. McCardle, C. Connor (Eds.) Reading Intervention: Research to Practice to Research. (pp. 197-208) New York. Brookes Publishing Inc.

Sakr, M., Connelly, V & Wild, M (2015) The semiotic work of teachers’ writing in displays of young children’s drawings. In E. Breur & A. Archer, (eds). Multi-modality in Writing:The state of the art in theory, methodology and pedagogy. (pp. 278-298) Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.

Connelly, V & Dockrell, J.E. (2015). Writing development and instruction for students with learning disabilities: Using diagnostic categories to study writing difficulties. In C MacArthur, S. Graham, J. Fitzgerald (Eds) Handbook of Writing Research, 2nd Edition. (pp. 349-363). New York: Guildford Publications.

Connelly, V. (2014). Integrating writing and oral language disorders: Perspectives of a Writing Researcher. In B. Arfe, J. E. Dockrell, & V. W. Berninger (Eds.), Writing development andinstruction in children with hearing, speech, and oral language difficulties. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. (2014). Dyslexia and expressive writing in English. In B. Arfe, J. E. Dockrell, & V. W. Berninger (Eds.), Writing development and instruction in children withhearing, speech, and oral language difficulties. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dockrell, J.E., Connelly, V., Lindsay, G., & Mackie, C. (2012). The impact of oral language skills on children’s production of written
text. In M. Torrance, D. Alamargot, M. Castello, R. Llull, F. Ganier, O. Kruse, A. Mangen, L. Tolchinsky. & L. Van Waes, (Eds.). Learning to write effectively. Current trends in European research. (pp. 38-41) Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Connelly, V, Dockrell, J.E., Barnett, A. (2011). Children Challenged by Writing Due to Language and Motor Difficulties. In V. Berninger (Ed.), Cognitive Psychology of Writing Handbook: Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Cognitive Writing Research to Cognitive Psychology (pp. 217-245). New York: Psychology Press.

Connelly, V., Johnston, R.S. and Thompson, G.B., (1999). The effects of instruction on reading acquisition processes In Thompson, G.B., Tunmer, W. and Nicholson, T. (Eds) Learning to read: Beyond phonics and Whole Language. London: Teachers College Press/ IRA. p.103-125., 1999

Stanton, N.A., Connelly, V., Van Vugt, M. & Prichard, J. (1999). Assessing the effects of location, media and task type on team performance. In D. Harris (Ed) Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics. Ashgate: Aldershot. p.81-106. , 1999

Recent Professional Articles

Connelly, V, Sumner E, & Barnett, A. (2015). Dyslexia and writing: Poor spelling can interfere with good quality composition. Brookes eJournal of Learning and Teaching. 6(2).

Connelly, V, Sumner E, & Barnett, A (2013). Dyslexia and composing writing: Poor spelling constrains the quality of composition. Dyslexia Review Magazine.

Sumner, E, Connelly, V & Barnett, A. (2013). Dyslexia spells trouble for writing. SEN magazine.

Membership of professional bodies

European Co-ordinator of the Special Interest Group on Writing (http://www.sig-writing.org) as part of the European Association for Research in Learning and Instruction 2013-2017.

UK Department of Education Special Educational Needs Research Advisory Group, 2016-2017

Communication Manager COST IS1401 European Research Network on Literacy 2014-2016.

UK Department of Education Analytical Associate Pool Member 2015-2017.

British Psychology Society Developmental Section previous roles pre-2010

Fellow of the Inter University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society 2013

Advisory board member King’s Centre for Military Health Research (KCMHR). 2015-2017

Member of European Research Group on Military and Society (ERGOMAS) 2017

Conferences

Selected Conference papers

Connelly, V. (2016). Discussant for the role of language in written text production symposium. EARLI SIG Writing Bi-Annual Conference, Liverpool, UK.

Dockrell, J.E. & Connelly, V. (2016). Oral language: concurrent and predictive relationships with written text production. EARLI SIG Writing Bi-Annual Conference, Liverpool, UK.

Connelly, V. & Dockrell, J.E. (2016). Analysing children's written products. EARLI SIG Writing Research School, Liverpool, UK.

Dockrell, J.E. & Connelly, V. (2016). Using CBM for the assessment of written texts. EARLI SIG Writing Research School, Liverpool, UK.

Sumner, E, Connelly, V & Barnett, A (2016). Comparing the impact of a word spelling problem on text writing from childhood to adulthood. BDA Bi-Annual Conference, Oxford.

Molyneaux, A, Barnett, A, Connelly, V, Glenny, G Davies, R. (2016). Sub-lexical fragmentation of words during handwriting in English. SSSR Conference, Porto, Potugal.

Connelly, V. (2015). Discussant for Writing words: Typical and atypical development. Writing Words Workshop, Poitiers, France.

Connelly, V, Sumner, E & Barnett, A. (2015). How does the impact of word spelling problems change over development? Writing Words Workshop, Poitiers, France.

Connelly, V, Sumner, E & Barnett, A. (2015). Links between spelling, pausing and vocabulary choice in children with dyslexia. EARLI bi-annual conference, Cyprus.

Connelly, V. (2015). Discussant for Design principles for teaching effective writing. EARLI bi-annual conference, Cyprus.

Sumner, E. Connelly, V. Barnett, A. (2015). Pausing in writing. NHA Annual Members Day, London, UK.

Connelly, V, (2014). Children with Dyslexia stumbling over words. Invited presentation to The Dyslexia Foundation 14th Symposium on Reading Intervention: Research to Practice. Azores, Portugal.

Connelly, V. (2014). Challenged by Writing: Stumbling over words. Invited public lecture. Oxford Brookes University.

https://lecturecapture.brookes.ac.uk/Mediasite/Play/bd7412f332a3473f93c17a0eb7df7ccb1d

Connelly, V. (2014). Struggling with Writing; The impact of dyslexia and other language based disorders on writing and composing text. Chair for 4 paper symposium to British Dyslexia Association 9th International Conference, Guildford, UK.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, JE, Walter, KW, Critten S. (2014). Linking product with process. Using digital pen tracking and keystroke logging to understand writing. Chair for 6 author symposium to Writing Research across Border 3rd Conference, Paris, France.

Connelly, V (2013). Influences on the writing processes of children who struggle with writing. Chair for invited 5 author symposium to BPS Developmental & Cognitive Psychology Conference, University of Reading, UK.

Connelly, V (2013).  Weight of language specific factors in writing development. Discussant for Invited symposium, EARLI 15th Biennial Conference, Munich, Germany.

Connelly V. (2013). The writing skills of children with dyslexia. Keynote address to Dyslexia Action Annual Conference, Guildford, UK.

Connelly, V. (2012). Children challenged by writing. Invited talk to Understanding Children's Literacy Conference, Coventry University, UK.

Connelly, V. (2012). The writing difficulties of children with specific language impairment and dyslexia. Invited talk at COST Action IS0703 ERN-LWE Final Conference. University of Poitiers, France.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, J.E., Critten, S., Walter, K.W (2012). The writing difficulties of children with specific language impairment. EARLI Special Interest Group: Writing, Porto.

Arfé,B. Dockrell, J.E, Connelly, V. Walter K. & De Bernardi, B. (2012). The relationship between sentence generation, writing and language in Italian and English developing writers. EARLI Special Interest Group: Writing, Porto.

Dockrell, J., Connelly, V., Walter, K. & Critten, S. (2012) Using curriculum-based measurement to assess writing development. EARLI Special Interest Group: Writing, Porto.

Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. (2012). Children with dyslexia are slow writers because they pause more often and not because they are slow at handwriting. Presented as part of a symposium entitled ‘Writing difficulties in children with specific language and motor disorders’. EARLI Special Interest Group: Writing, Porto.

Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. (2012). Children with dyslexia are slow writers because they pause more often and not because they are slow at handwriting. Handwriting in the UK. Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, J.E., Critten, S., Walter, K.W (2012). The writing difficulties of children with specific language impairment. Handwriting in the UK. Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh.

Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. (2011). Writing performance in children with dyslexia. Paper presented as part of a symposium entitled ‘Challenged by writing: The writing skills of individuals with dyslexia and associated difficulties. British Dyslexia Association conference, Harrogate.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, J.E., Critten, S., Walter, K. (2011).The writing difficulties of children with specific language impairment. Paper presented as part of a symposium entitled ‘Challenged by writing: The writing skills of individuals with dyslexia and associated difficulties.  British Dyslexia Association Conference. Harrogate, UK.

Dockrell, J.E., Connelly, V, Critten, S., Walter, K. (2011). The relationship between spelling and writing development in children with language difficulties. Society for Research in Child Language & Development. Madison USA.

Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. (2011). Writing performance in students with dyslexia: beyond single word spelling difficulties. European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI). Exeter., UK.

Connelly, V., Critten, S., Dockrell, J. E., Walter, K. (2011, August) Writing Development in children with language difficulties and the influence of spelling skill. European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI). Exeter, UK.

Sumner, E., Connelly., V., & Barnett, A. (2010). A review of handwriting performance in students with dyslexia. Handwriting in the UK conference. York St John University, York.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, J.E., Critten, S., Walter, K.W (2011). Children challenged by writing: The writing difficulties of children with specific language impairment. Prozesse der Textproduktion in der Schule: Strukturen und Verarbeitung aus sprachdidaktischer und psycholinguistischer Perspektive. DGfS conference, Gottingen, Germany.

Dockrell, J., Connelly, V., Walter, K. & Critten, S. (2011) Using curriculum-based measurement to assess writing development. COST ERN-LWE Workshop, Potsdam, Germany.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, J.E., Critten, S., Walter, K.W., Lindsay, G. (2010). Writing development in children with language difficulties and the influence of spelling skill. EARLI Special Interest Group in Writing (SIG Writing) Conference, Heidelberg, Germany.

Dockrell, J., Connelly, V., Walter, K. & Critten, S. (2010) Using curriculum-based measurement to assess writing development. EARLI Special Interest Group in Writing (SIG Writing) Conference, Heidelberg, Germany.