Staff Profiles

Modules taught

PSYC5004 Biological Psychology

PSYC5007 Developmental Psychology

PSYC6011 Psychology Project

PSYC7006 Intelligence & Individual Differences

Supervision

Current PhD students:

Teresa Joyce: Executive Functions in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)

Parmida Mohammadpour: Home numeracy practices

Sarah Howcutt: How to engage underrepresented women to studies enquiring about their health risk behaviours

My general area of interest is perceptual-motor development. Within this area I pursue two different strands of research. The first has very practical applications, involving the development of suitable tools to assess motor skill. This has involved re-standardisation of a test of general motor competence (the Movement ABC-2) for children aged 3 to 16 years, with the collection of new UK norms. I have also developed a test of handwriting speed (the DASH) for children aged 9-16 years, with an extension for students aged 17-25 years (DASH17+). The second strand of my research focuses on various aspects of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) - including diagnosis and assessment in children and adults with this condition. In my work I also employ an experimental approach to gain a better understanding of the perceptual-motor deficits in DCD.

I also have a special interest in the teaching and learning of handwriting skill, as an important component of the broader skill of writing. My work in this area includes surveys of policy and practice in primary schools and examinations of handwriting in individuals with developmental disorders such as DCD and dyslexia.

Research group membership

Developmental Psychology

Research grants and awards

Writing in the digital age. Prunty, M., Sumner, E. & Barnett, A.L. Funder: Royal College of Occupational Therapy. Awarded 2019.

UK Standardisation of the IDS-2 (Intelligence & Development Scales). Barnett, A. Funder: Hogrefe Ltd. Awarded 2017.

Navigational abilities of typically developing individuals and individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Wilmut, K. & Barnett, A. L. Funder: Economic & Social Research Council (ESRC). Awarded 2012.

Sleep disturbance in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Barnett, A.L & Wiggs, L. Funder: The Waterloo Foundation. Awarded 2012.

Extension of the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH) for 17-25 year olds. Barnett, A.L. Funder: Pearson Assessment. Awarded 2008.

Re-standardization of the Movement ABC. Barnett, A.L. Funder: Harcourt Assessment. Awarded: 2005.

Assessing impaired motor coordination in teenagers: An extension of the Movement ABC and development of a new handwriting assessment. Henderson, S.E. & Barnett, A.L. Funder: Action Medical Research. Awarded: 2003.

Research impact

REF 2014 Impact Case Study: Improving identification and support of individuals with handwriting and movement difficulties through development of two tests: Movement ABC-2 and DASH. 

The Movement ABC-2 Test is internationally recognised as the 'gold standard' for identifying children with motor difficulties. Prof Anna Barnett's revision and development has provided health and education professionals with a reliable assessment tool, improving the support for children and their familities. This test is recommended in the latest European guidelines on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) - a condition recognised as having a major impact on the lives of children  - and has also been translated into several languages for global use. The parallel development of specific tests for handwriting (DASH) and (DASH17+) for children and adults has provided clinicians and teachers with the tools to help support students with their class work and written examinations. 

Further information

http://www.psychology.brookes.ac.uk/research/perception-and-motion-analysis/

http://psych.brookes.ac.uk/dcd/

Books

• Barnett A L, Henderson S E, Scheib B, Schulz J, Detailed assessment of speed of handwriting (DASH 17+), Pearson (2010)
  ISBN: 9780749149253
  Abstract The DASH 17+ provides a reliable, age-appropriate measure of handwriting speed for students aged 17-25 years in further and higher education. This upwards extension of the DASH can identify students with slow handwriting and may assist in providing evidence for extra support, such as Access Arrangements in examinations or the Disabled Students' Allowance. Information from the DASH 17+ also provides relevant information for planning intervention. The assessment includes five subtests, each testing a different aspect of handwriting speed. The subtests examine fine motor and precision skills, the speed of producing well known symbolic material, the ability to alter speed of performance on two tasks with identical content and free writing competency. Standardised subtest and composite scores are provided, based on data collected from a sample of 400 students in further and higher education across the UK in 2009. Website 
• Connelly V, Barnett AL, Ed., Teaching and learning writing, British Psychological Society (2009)
  ISBN: 9781854334909
  Abstract This monograph presents recent international research on the teaching and learning of writing. The purpose of the monograph is to inform education professionals about this exciting new research which we hope will, in turn, contribute to improved practice and performance in the classroom.
  The studies in this monograph fall into two broad and overlapping areas of interest. The first is concerned with charting performance and development in writing skills in typical and in special populations. Topics covered include writing as discovery; linguistic development in writing; the writing of children with language impairments; unexpectedly good and poor spellers; and brain activation and idea generation. The second area is concerned directly with assessment, assistance and instruction in writing. Topics covered here range from drawing lessons from research for evidence based writing practice in the classroom; self-regulated strategy development in writing; the development of a new handwriting speed test; and the use of information technology in the classroom for struggling writers.
• Connelly V, Barnett A L, Dockrell J, Tolmie A, Teaching and learning writing, British Psychological Society (2009)
  ISBN: 9781854334909
  Abstract This monograph presents recent international research on the teaching and learning of writing. The purpose of the monograph is to inform education professionals about this exciting new research which we hope will, in turn, contribute to improved practice and performance in the classroom. The studies in this monograph fall into two broad and overlapping areas of interest. The first is concerned with charting performance and development in writing skills in typical and in special populations. Topics covered include writing as discovery; linguistic development in writing; the writing of children with language impairments; unexpectedly good and poor spellers; and brain activation and idea generation. The second area is concerned directly with assessment, assistance and instruction in writing. Topics covered here range from drawing lessons from research for evidence based writing practice in the classroom; self-regulated strategy development in writing; the development of a new handwriting speed test; and the use of information technology in the classroom for struggling writers. Taken together, these papers emphasize the complexity of the writing process and the various levels of analysis that can be used to inform practice; ranging from the purely biological through to meta-analytic techniques that illustrate which particular teaching interventions potentially have the most impact on writing development and why.

Journal articles

• Barnett AL, Prunty M, 'Handwriting difficulties in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)'
  Current Developmental Disorders Reports x (2020)
  ISSN: 2196-2987
  Abstract

  Purpose of review. Handwriting is a particular difficulty in DCD. Children who struggle to produce legible and sufficiently fast handwriting may under-achieve at school. Using van Galen’s model, this review examines recent research to describe the nature of handwriting difficulties in DCD. The range of assessment tools is highlighted and recommendations for intervention provided. 
  Recent findings. Embedded in the broader skill of writing, handwriting involves more than motor skill.  Children with DCD tend to produce less writing than their peers. Their slow rate of production is characterised by frequent pauses. Errors in letter formation negatively impact on legibility and the quality of written composition is also poor. Different types of assessment help to capture the range of difficulties. 
  Summary. Comprehensive assessment helps gain a full understanding of the nature of handwriting difficulties in DCD. International recommendations and guidelines provide a valuable framework for assessment and principles for intervention. 
  

  Website 
• Ke L, Du W, Wang Y, Duan W, Hua J, Barnett AL, 'The Movement ABC-2 Test in China: comparison with UK norms for 3-10 year olds'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 105 (2020)
  ISSN: 0891-4222 eISSN: 1873-3379
  Abstract

  The Test component of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (Movement ABC-2) is used worldwide to identify children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). In China, practitioners have been using this test with the assumption that the published UK norms are valid for Chinese children. However no systematic investigation has previously been undertaken to check this assumption. 2185 children aged 3–10 years old from a national representative sample in China were therefore recruited to the current study. Performance on the Movement ABC-2 was assessed and compared with the UK standardization norms. Gender differences were also examined. The comparisons revealed that Chinese children were generally better in Manual Dexterity and Balance tasks compared to their UK peers; while UK children were better in Aiming & Catching tasks. Further analysis showed an interaction of country and age with mixed results. For both countries, girls were generally better in Manual Dexterity and Balance tasks, and boys were generally better in Aiming & Catching. Possible explanations for the country differences are discussed. The results suggest that local norms for the Movement ABC-2 Test are needed in China.
  

  Website 
• Du W, Ke L, Wan Y, Hua J, Duan W, Barnett AL, 'The prenatal, postnatal, neonatal, and family environmental risk factors for Developmental Coordination Disorder: a study with a national representative sample'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 104 (2020)
  ISSN: 0891-4222 eISSN: 1873-3379
  Abstract

  Knowledge of obstetric and environmental influences on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) helps provide increased understanding of the mechanisms underlying the disorder. However, the literature to date has not adequately examined the obstetric and environmental risk factors for DCD in a population-based sample. The current study was therefore conducted to explore the prenatal, perinatal, neonatal, and family environmental risk factors for DCD. A total of 2185 children aged 3-10 years from a national representative sample in China were included; the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 was used to assess motor
  function, and a questionnaire was completed by parents. DCD was identified in 156 children according to the DSM-5 criteria. Multilevel logistic regression was used, and comparisons were made between the DCD and non-DCD group. The results confirmed that male sex, BMI score, preterm birth, and some prenatal conditions are significant risk factors for DCD. Parents’ education level and one-child status as two significant environmental risk factors for DCD appear largely independent of other risk factors in the Chinese population. This study provides an opportunity to explore the etiology of DCD and suggest potential assessment, monitoring and intervention programs for DCD that could be examined in the future. 
  

  Website 
• O'Rourke L, Connelly V, Barnett, AL, Afonso O, 'Use of spellcheck in text production by college students with dyslexia'
  Journal of Writing Research 12 (1) (2020) pp.35-62
  ISSN: 2030-1006
  Abstract

  It is widely assumed that by identifying spelling errors and suggesting replacement words, spellcheck allows writers to revise spelling errors even if they do not have the necessary spelling knowledge. However, there have been no studies evaluating the efficacy of modern spellcheck tools for students with spelling difficulties, such as dyslexia. In fact, the very limited and dated research into use of spellcheck by writers with dyslexia indicated that, even when using spellcheck to revise spelling errors, this group left many misspellings in their texts. The current study is the first to investigate whether a modern spellcheck program allows college students with dyslexia to produce texts that are as free from misspellings as texts by their peers, and whether this affects the quality of the text in other ways.
  

  College students with dyslexia (n=18) and a control group of peers (n=18) wrote two short essays using Microsoft Word, one with spellcheck active and one without spellcheck active. Spelling accuracy and overall quality of the texts were measured. Without spellcheck, students with dyslexia made more misspellings than the control group, however, with spellcheck active students from both groups left almost zero misspelled words in their texts. Text quality was not affected. Results demonstrate that spellcheck helps college students with dyslexia to overcome the limitations that poor spelling knowledge imposes. Importantly, results indicate that spellcheck does not lead to improvements in text beyond spelling accuracy, or lead to poorer quality texts, indicating that it is suitable for use in exam conditions.

  Website 
• Howcutt SJ, Barbosa-Bouças S, Brett J, Barnett AL, Smith LA, 'Lifestage differences in young UK women’s reasons for research participation'
  Health Promotion International x (2020)
  ISSN: 0957-4824 eISSN: 1460-2245
  Abstract

  Lifecourse epidemiology suggests that preconception is a valuable opportunity for health promotion with young women.  Yet young women are less likely than older women to be research participants, limiting evidence about their needs and risks.  Marketing data indicate that young adults are not engaged with one advertising strategy because they transition through three life stages: (1) limited independence and focus on own interests, (2) increased independence and time with peers, (3) establishing a home and family.  The aim of this study was to explore whether these marketing lifestage categories could inform the tailoring of strategies to recruit young women.Three focus groups per lifestage category were conducted (49 women aged 16 to 34 years).  Lifestage category (1) was represented by further education students, category (2) by women in workplaces, and (3) by mothers.  Questions explored participants’ lifestyles, identity, reasons for  participation in the current study and beliefs about researchers.   Three major themes were identified through framework analysis: Profiling how young women spend their time; Facilitators of participating in research; and Barriers to participating.  Students and women in work valued monetary remuneration whereas mothers preferred social opportunities.  Participants’ perceived identity influenced whether they felt useful to research.   All groups expressed anxiety about participation.  Altruism was limited to helping people known to participants.  Therefore, the marketing categories did not map exactly to differences in young women’s motivations to participate but have highlighted how one recruitment strategy may not engage all.   Mass media communication could, instead, increase familiarity and reduce anxiety about participation.
  

  Website 
• Barnett AL, Connelly V, Miller B, 'The Interaction of Reading, Spelling and Handwriting Difficulties with Writing Development'
  Journal of Learning Disabilities 53 (2) (2019) pp.92-95
  ISSN: 0022-2194 eISSN: 1538-4780
  Website 
• Prunty M, Barnett AL, 'Accuracy and consistency of letter formation in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: an exploratory study'
  Journal of Learning Disabilities 53 (2) (2019) pp.120-130
  ISSN: 0022-2194 eISSN: 1538-4780
  Abstract Background: Handwriting difficulties are frequently mentioned in descriptions of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD).  Recent studies have shown that children with DCD pause more and produce less text than typically developing (TD) peers. This temporal dysfluency indicates a lack of automaticity in handwriting production. One possible contributing factor is the accuracy and consistency of letter formation. The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of handwriting dysfluency by examining the accuracy and consistency of letter production both within and across different writing tasks.
  Method: Twenty-eight 8-15 year-old children with DCD participated in the study, with 28 typically developing (TD) age and gender matched controls. They completed the alphabet writing and copy fast tasks from the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting on a digitising writing tablet.  The accuracy and consistency of letter production were examined.
  Results & Discussion: The DCD group had a higher percentage of errors within their letterforms than TD peers. Letter production was also less consistent between tasks. Children with DCD appear to have difficulties with the ‘allograph’ (motor program) aspect of handwriting and may require explicit teaching of letter formation.
  Website 
• Blank R, Barnett AL, Cairney J, Green D, Kirby A, Polatajko H, Rosenblum S, Smits-Engelsman B, Sugden D, Wilson P, Vincon S., 'International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder'
  Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 61 (3) (2019) pp.242-285
  ISSN: 0012-1622 eISSN: 1469-8749
  Abstract

  Aim. These international clinical practice recommendations (CPR) for developmental coordination disorder (DCD), initiated by the European Academy of Childhood Disability (EACD), aim to address key questions on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of DCD relevant for clinical practice. Method. Key questions in five areas were considered through literature reviews and formal expert consensus. For recommendations based on evidence, literature searches on ‘mechanisms’, ‘assessment’, and ‘intervention’ were updated since the last recommendations in 2012. New searches were conducted for ‘psychosocial issues’ and ‘adolescents/adults’. Evidence was rated according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (level of evidence [LOE] 1–4) and transferred into recommendations. For recommendations based on formal consensus, two meetings of an international, multidisciplinary expert panel were conducted with a further five Delphi rounds to develop good clinical practice (GCP) recommendations. Results. Thirty-five recommendations were made. Eight were based on the evidence from literature reviews (three on ‘assessment’, five on ‘intervention’). Twenty-two were updated from the 2012 recommendations. New recommendations relate to diagnosis and assessment (two GCPs) and psychosocial issues (three GCPs). Additionally, one new recommendation (LOE) reflects active video games as adjuncts to more traditional activity-oriented and participation-oriented interventions, and two new recommendations (one GCP, one LOE) were made for adolescents and adults with DCD. Interpretation. The CPR–DCD is a comprehensive overview of DCD and current understanding based on research evidence and expert consensus. It reflects the state of the art for clinicians and scientists of varied disciplines. The international CPR–DCD may serve as a basis for national guidelines.

  Website 
• Zoia S, Biancotto M, Guicciardi M, Lecis R, Lucidi F, Pelamatti GM, Carrozzi M, Skabar A, Sugden DA, Barnett AL, Henderson SE, 'An evaluation of the Movement ABC-2 Test for use in Italy: A comparison of data from Italy and the UK'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 84 (2019) pp.43-56
  ISSN: 0891-4222 eISSN: 1873-3379
  Abstract

  Background. The standardized test within the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) is used worldwide to assess motor problems in children. Ideally, any country using a test developed in another country should produce national norms to ensure that it functions effectively in the new context. Aim. The first objective of this study was to explore the differences in motor performance between Italian and British children. The second was to examine the structural validity of the test for the Italian sample. Method. A total of 718 Italian (IT) and 765 British (UK) children, aged 3–10 years, were individually tested on the age-appropriate items of the MABC-2 Test. Results. Developmental trends emerged on every task and differences between IT and UK children were obtained on 11 of 27 task comparisons. Interactions between age and country indicated that differences were not consistently in favor of one culture. Confirmatory factor analysis generally supported the proposed structure of the MABC-2 Test. Conclusion. Although the differences between the IT and the UK children were relatively few, those that did emerge emphasize the need for population specific norms and suggest that cultural diversity in motor experiences should be considered when evaluating motor abilities in children.

  Website 
• Nielsen K, Henderson W, Barnett AL, Abbott RD, Berninger VW, 'Insights about the Role of Movement in Literacy Learning Based on Movement ABC-2 Checklist Parent Ratings for Students with and without Persisting Specific Learning Disabilities'
  Learning Disabilities -Multidisciplinary Journal- 23 (1) (2018)
  ISSN: 1046-6819 eISSN: 2374-7846
  Abstract Movement, which draws on motor skills and executive functions for managing them, plays an important role in literacy learning (e.g., movement of mouth during oral reading and movement of hand and fingers during writing); but relatively little research has focused on movement skills in students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs) as the current study did. Parents completed normed Movement Assessment Battery for Children Checklist - 2nd edition (ABC-2), ratings and their children in grades 4 to 9 (M=11 years, 11 months; 94 boys, 61 girls) completed diagnostic assessment used to assign them to diagnostic groups: control typical language learning (N=42), dysgraphia (impaired handwriting) (N=29), dyslexia (impaired word decoding/reading and spelling) (N=65), or oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax in oral and written language) (N=19). The research aims were to (a) correlate the  Movement ABC-2 parent ratings for Scale A Static/ Predictable Environment  (15 items)  and Scale B Dynamic/ Unpredictable Environment (15 items) with reading and writing achievement in total sample varying within and across different skills; and (b) compare each SLD group with the control group on Movement ABC-2 parent ratings for Scale A, Scale B,  and Scale C Movement-Related (Non-Motor Executive Functions, or Self-Efficacy, or Affect) (13 items).  At least one Movement ABC-2 parent rating was correlated with each assessed literacy achievement skill. Each of three SLD groups differed from the control group on two Scale A (static/ predictable environment) (fastens buttons and forms letters with pencil or pen) and on three Scale C (non-motor, movement-related) (distractibility, overactive, and underestimates own ability) items; but only OWL LD differed from control on Scale B (dynamic/unpredictable) items. Applications of findings to assessment and instruction for students ascertained for and diagnosed with persisting SLDs in literacy learning, and future research directions are discussed. Website 
• Barnett AL, Prunty M, Rosenblum R, 'Development of the Handwriting Legibility Scale (HLS): a preliminary examination of Reliability and Validity'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 72 (Jan. 2018) (2017) pp.240-247
  ISSN: 0891-4222 eISSN: 1873-3379
  Abstract Background:
  Demands for the production of legible handwriting produced in a timely manner increase as children progress through school. Despite the considerable number of children faced with handwriting difficulties, there is no quick and practical tool to assess legibility in this population.
  
  Aim:
  The aim of this study was to develop the Handwriting Legibility Scale (HLS) and to establish the scale's reliability and validity.
  
  Methods:
  The HLS is a non-language dependent scale which assesses global legibility, based on five criteria applied to samples of 'free writing'. Content validity, inter-rater reliability and internal consistency were initially examined using scripts from 20 children aged 8-14 years. Construct validity was established by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of data from 150 school children aged 9-14 years, with an additional examination of gender effects. Discriminant validity of the HLS score was examined in 29 children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and 29 typically developing (TD) children.
  
  Results:
  The results indicated high internal consistency (α=0.92). The inter-rater reliability was acceptable but indicates the need to refine the scoring instructions. PCA of the five components revealed a one factor solution explaining 61% of the variance. In the discriminant analysis, 86.2% of the children with DCD and 89.7% of the TD children were correctly classified to their groups based on the total HLS score.
  
  Conclusions:
  The overall findings suggest that the HLS may be a useful tool to identify poor handwriting legibility, with application across different languages and writing scripts.Website 
• Howcutt S, Barnett AL, Barbosa-Boucas S, Smith L, 'Research recruitment: A marketing framework to improve sample representativeness in health research'
  Journal of Advanced Nursing 74 (4) (2017) pp.968-975
  ISSN: 0309-2402 eISSN: 1365-2648
  Abstract Aims. This discussion paper proposes a five-part theoretical framework to inform recruitment strategies. The framework is based on a marketing model of consumer decision-making.
  Background. Respondents in surveys are typically healthier than non-respondents, which has an impact on the availability of information about those most in need. Previous research has identified response patterns, provided theories about why people participate in research and evaluated different recruitment strategies. Social marketing has been applied successfully to recruitment and promotes focus on the needs of the participant, but little attention has been paid to the periods before and after participant-researcher contact (during advertising and following completion of studies). We propose a new model which conceptualises participation as a decision involving motivation, perception of information, attitude formation, integration of intention and action and finally evaluation and sharing of experience.
  Design. Discussion paper.
  Data sources. This discussion paper presents a critical review. No literature was excluded on date and the included citations span the years 1981 - 2017.
  Implications for nursing. The proposed framework suggests that researchers could engage a broader demographic if they shape research design and advertising to perform functions that participants are seeking to achieve. The framework provides a novel and useful conceptualisation of recruitment which could help to inform public engagement in research design, researcher training and research policy.
  Conclusion. This framework challenges researchers to investigate the goals of the potential participants when designing a study's advertising and procedures.Website 
• Prunty M, Barnett AL, 'Understanding handwriting difficulties: A comparison of children with and without motor impairment'
  Cognitive Neuropsychology 34 (3/4) (2017) pp.205-218
  ISSN: 0264-3294 eISSN: 1464-0627
  Abstract The nature of handwriting difficulties have been explored in children with specific developmental disorders. The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of handwriting difficulties in children with dysgraphia, a less studied group who have significant handwriting difficulties in the absence of motor control or cognitive difficulties. The performance of a dysgraphia group aged 8-14 years was compared to a group with Developmental Coordination Disorder and to typically developing (TD) controls. Participants completed two handwriting tasks on a digitizing writing tablet. The amount and accuracy of the handwriting product was measured, plus various temporal and spatial features of the writing process. There were no significant differences in performance between the two groups with handwriting difficulties but both performed more poorly than the TD group. Individual differences in the type and severity of handwriting impairments suggest the need for a range of classroom assessments to tailor intervention appropriately.Website 
• Wilmut K, Barnett AL, 'When an object appears unexpectedly: foot placement during obstacle circumvention in children and adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Experimental Brain Research 235 (10) (2017) pp.2947-2958
  ISSN: 0014-4819 eISSN: 1432-1106
  Abstract
  Adjustments to locomotion to avoid an obstacle require a change to the usual pattern of foot
  placement, i.e. changes to step length and/or step width. Previous studies have demonstrated a
  difficulty in individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in controlling stability
  while both stepping over and while circumventing an obstacle. In a previous study we have
  considered the way in which individuals with DCD prepare for the possibility of an obstacle
  appearing (Wilmut and Barnett, 2017). Using a parallel data set from this same task on the same
  individuals the aim of the current study was to investigate the exact nature of changes in foot
  placement during obstacle avoidance, as this was not clear from previous work. Children and adults aged from 7 to 34 years of age took part in the study. Forty-four met the criteria for a diagnosis of DCD and there were 44 typically developing (TD) age and gender matched controls. Participants walked at a comfortable pace down an 11m walkway; on 6 out of 36 trials a ‘gate’ closed across their pathway which required circumvention. These 6 ‘gate close’ trials were analysed for this study. The number and magnitude of step length and step width adjustments were similar across the DCD and TD groups, however, the younger children (7-11yrs) made a greater number of early adjustments compared to the older children and adults (12-34 years of age). In contrast the adults made a greater number of adjustments later in the movement compared to the children. In terms of foot placement adjustments a clear preference was seen across all participants to use adjustments which resulted in reducing step length, stepping away from the obstacle and a combination of these. Apart from subtle differences, the individuals with DCD make step placements to circumvent an obstacle in line with their peers. It is suggested that the choice of foot placement strategy in individuals with DCD, although in line with their peers, may not be optimal for their level of motor ability. 
  Website 
• Howcutt S, Barnett AL, Barbosa Boucas S, Smith L, 'Patterns of response by sociodemographic characteristics and recruitment methods for women in UK population surveys and cohort studies'
  Women and Health 58 (4) (2017) pp.365-386
  ISSN: 0363-0242
  Abstract Women are an important public health focus, because they are more likely to experience some social determinants of disease, and they influence family health.  Little research has explored the sociodemographic representativeness of women in research studies.  We examined the representativeness of female respondents across four sociodemographic factors in UK population surveys and cohort studies.  Six UK population-based health surveys (from 2009 to 2013) and eight Medical Research Council cohort studies (from 1991 to 2014) were included.  Percentages of women respondents by age, income/occupation, education status and ethnicity were compared against contemporary population estimates.  Women aged <35 years were under-represented.  The oldest women were under-represented in four of nine studies.  Within income/occupation, at the highest deprivation level, the range was 4% under-representation to 43% over-representation; at the lowest level, it was 6% under-representation to 21% over-representation.  Of nine studies reporting educational level, four under-represented women without school qualifications, and three under-represented women with degrees.  One of five studies over-represented non-white groups and under-represented white women (by 9%).  Response patterns varied by topic and recruitment and data collection methods.  Future research should focus upon the methods used to identify, reach and engage women to improve representativeness in studies addressing health behaviors.Website 
• Wilmut K, Barnett AL, 'When an object appears unexpectedly: anticipatory movement and object circumvention in individuals with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Experimental Brain Research 235 (5) (2017) pp.1531-1540
  ISSN: 0014-4819 eISSN: 1432-1106
  Abstract Obstacles often appear unexpectedly in our pathway and these require us to make adjustments to avoid collision. Previous research has demonstrated that healthy adults will make anticipatory adjustments to gait where they have been told there is the possibility of an obstacle appearing. One population that may find this type of anticipatory movement difficult is individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The current study considered how individuals with and without DCD adjust to the possibility of an obstacle appearing which would require circumvention. Forty four individuals with DCD and 44 agematched controls (aged from 7-34 years of age) walked down an 11m walkway under three conditions. Initially they were told this was a clear pathway and nothing in the environment would change (1, no possibility of an obstacle, no obstacle). They then performed a series of trials in which a gate may (2, possibility of an obstacle, obstacle) or may not (3, possibility of an obstacle, no obstacle) partially obstruct their pathway. We found that all participants increased medio-lateral trunk acceleration when there was the possibility of an obstacle but before the obstacle appeared, in addition the typical adults and older children also increased step width. When describing circumvention we found that the younger children showed an increase in trunk velocity and acceleration in all three directions compared to older children and adults. We also found that the individuals with DCD adjusted their path sooner and deviated more than their peers. The degree of adjustment to step width in anticipation of an obstacle was related to later medio-lateral velocity and timing of the deviation. Therefore, the lack of ‘readying’ the system where there is the possibility of an obstacle appearing seen in the individuals with DCD and the younger typical children may explain the increased mediolateral velocity seen during circumvention. Website 
• Wilmut K, Du W, Barnett AL, 'When an object appears unexpectedly: object circumvention in adults'
  Journal of Motor Behavior 49 (6) (2016) pp.629-639
  ISSN: 0022-2895
  Abstract Obstacles often appear unexpectedly in our pathway and these require us to make immediate adjustments. Despite how regularly we encounter such situations only few studies have considered how we adjust to unexpected obstacles in the pathway which require us to walk around them. The current study considered how adults adjust to the possibility of an obstacle appearing and then also how foot placement is adjusted to circumvent an obstacle. Fifteen healthy adults walked down an 11m walkway, initially they were told this was a clear pathway and nothing in the environment would change (no gate), they then performed a series of trials in which a gate may (gate close) or may not (gate open) partially obstruct their pathway. We found that medio-lateral trunk velocity and acceleration was significantly increased when there was the possibility of an obstacle but before the obstacle appeared. This demonstrates an adaptive walking strategy which seems to enable healthy young adults to successfully circumvent obstacles. We also categorised foot placement adjustments and found that adults favoured making shorter and wider steps  away from the obstacle. We suggest this combination of adjustments allows participants to maintain stability whilst successfully circumventing the obstacle. Website 
• Wilmut K, Gentle J, Barnett AL, 'Gait symmetry in individuals with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 60 (2016) pp.107-114
  ISSN: 0891-4222
  Abstract Background: Symmetry between the left and right side of the body during locomotion is key in a coordinated gait cycle and is also thought to be important in terms of efficiency. Although previous studies have identified aspects of the gait cycle which are atypical in children and adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), studies have not considered whether this could be explained by asymmetrical gait.
   
  Method and procedure: The current study included 62 participants with and 62 without DCD (aged 7-34 years). Participants were asked to walk continuously for 1 minute up and down a walkway while movement was captured using an optical tracking system. Measures of step length and step time were taken for both the right and the left leg and symmetry ratios were calculated.
   
  Results: The DCD group showed significantly higher symmetry ratios for both measures compared to the typically developing (TD) group, with approximately a third of DCD participants falling outside the normative range for symmetry. Furthermore, a relationship was found between movement variability and degree of asymmetry.
   
  Conclusions: These findings demonstrate an asymmetry in the gait of individuals with DCD which, despite improving with age, does not reach the same level as that shown by TD individuals. 
   
  Website 
• Wilmut K, Du W, Barnett A, 'Navigating through apertures: perceptual judgements and actions of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Developmental Science 20 (6) (2016)
  ISSN: 1363-755X
  Abstract Passing through a narrow gap/aperture involves a perceptual judgement regarding the size of the gap and an action to pass through. Children with DCD are known to have difficulties with perceptual judgments in near space but whether this extends to far space is unknown. Furthermore, in a recent study it was found that adults with DCD do not scale movements when walking through an aperture in the same way as their peers. The current study, therefore, considered perceptual judgments and motor behaviour of children with DCD while looking at or walking through apertures. Twenty-nine children with DCD and 29 typically developing (TD) children took part. In Experiment 1, participants completed a perceptual task, where they made passability judgements. Children with DCD showed a significantly smaller critical ratio (aperture size at which a participant first rotates the shoulders to pass through) compared to their TD peers. In Experiment 2, participants completed an action task where they walked through the same apertures. Children with DCD showed a significantly larger critical ratio than TD peers when body size alone was accounted for. Taken together these results suggest that perception within a static context is different from that within a dynamic context for children with DCD. However, despite this difference we have demonstrated a clear relationship between perception and action in children with DCD. Website 
• Gentle J, Barnett AL, Wilmut K, 'Adaptations to walking on an uneven terrain for individuals with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Human Movement Science 49 (2016) pp.346-353
  ISSN: 0167-9457
  Abstract Given the importance of walking in everyday life, understanding why this is challenging for some populations is particularly important. Studies focusing on gait patterns of individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have shown that whilst increased variability is characteristic of walking patterns for this group, differences in spatio-temporal gait variables seem only to arise when task demands increase. However, these differences occur under rather artificial conditions, for example using a treadmill. The aim of this study, therefore was to examine the step characteristics of individuals with and without DCD whilst walking along an irregular terrain. Thirty-five individuals with DCD aged 8-32 years and 35 age and gender-matched controls participated in this study. Participants were divided into 3 age groups; 8-12years (n = 12), 13-17years (n =12) and 18-32years (n=11). Participants walked up and down a 6m walkway for two minutes on two terrains: level and irregular. VICON 3D motion analysis was used to extract measures of foot placement, velocity and angle of the head and trunk. Results showed that both groups adapted their gait to negotiate the irregular terrain, but the DCD group were more affected than their TD peers; walking significantly slower with shorter, wider steps and inclining their head more towards the ground. This suggests an adaptive approach used by individuals with DCD to preserve stability and increase visual sampling whilst negotiating an irregular terrain.Website 
• Wiggs L, Sparrowhawk M, Barnett AL, 'Parent Report and Actigraphically Defined Sleep in Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder; Links with Fatigue and Sleepiness'
  Frontiers in Pediatrics 4 (2016)
  ISSN: 2296-2360
  Abstract Background: Impaired sleep is associated with negative effects on quality of life and daytime functioning. Higher rates of sleep disturbance are reported in children with various developmental disorders. However, little is known about sleep in children with developmental
  coordination disorder (DCD), a condition characterized by everyday movement difficulties. Previously, in a preliminary study, we found higher rates of parent-reported sleep disturbance in children with DCD compared to controls.
  
  Aims: To examine sleep in DCD using objective measures and to examine links with daytime fatigue and sleepiness.
   
  Methods: Two groups (primary and secondary school-aged) of 15 children with DCD, plus matched controls, participated. Parent-reported child sleep was assessed using the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire and actigraphy provided an objective measure of sleep–wake patterns over 1 week (including weekdays and weekend). Pediatric restless legs syndrome (RLS) semi-structured diagnostic interview was conducted with each child and parent to capture symptoms of RLS. Aspects of self-rated child functioning were assessed with questionnaires (Pre-sleep Arousal Scale, Pediatric Daytime Sleepiness Scale, PedsQL Multidimensional Fatigue Scale) and mothers’ reported thoughts about child sleep with the Maternal Cognitions about Infant Sleep Questionnaire. 
   
  Results: The DCD groups had greater parent-reported sleep disturbance. Actigraphy results suggested that for secondary aged children with DCD their sleep quality was impaired and there were differences in the timing of sleep compared to controls (including some differences in the variation between weekday and weekend sleep times). The actigraphy of the primary age group with DCD was unremarkable compared to controls. No child in the study met the criteria for RLS. Exploratory analyses suggested that daytime fatigue, aspects of pre-sleep arousal, and daytime sleepiness were reported as greater in the DCD groups and were particularly related to objective sleep parameters in the DCD groups. Maternal thoughts about sleep did not differ between the DCD and control groups.
  
  Conclusion: The nature and underlying cause of sleep disturbance and how it might be linked with aspects of daytime functioning in adolescents with DCD requires further research. Meanwhile, clinical awareness of the risk of atypical sleep patterns/sleep problems in DCD is important to ensure early identification and implementation of appropriate support.
   
   
  Website 
• Prunty M, Barnett AL, Wilmut, K, Plumb M, 'Visual perceptual and handwriting skills in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Human Movement Science 49 (2016) pp.54-65
  ISSN: 0167-9457
  Abstract Objective
   
  Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder demonstrate a lack of automaticity in handwriting as measured by pauses during writing. Deficits in visual perception have been proposed in the literature as underlying mechanisms of handwriting difficulties in children with DCD. The aim of this study was to examine whether correlations exist between measures of visual perception and visual motor integration with measures of the handwriting product and process in children with DCD.
   
  Method
   
  The performance of twenty-eight 8–14 year-old children who met the DSM-5 criteria for DCD was compared with 28 typically developing (TD) age and gender-matched controls. The children completed the Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration (VMI) and the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills (TVPS). Group comparisons were made, correlations were conducted between the visual perceptual measures and handwriting measures and the sensitivity and specificity examined.
   
  Results
   
  The DCD group performed below the TD group on the VMI and TVPS. There were no significant correlations between the VMI or TVPS and any of the handwriting measures in the DCD group. In addition, both tests demonstrated low sensitivity.
   
  Conclusion
   
  Clinicians should execute caution in using visual perceptual measures to inform them about handwriting skill in children with DCD.
  Website 
• Prunty M, Barnett A, Wilmut K, Plumb M, 'The Impact of Handwriting Difficulties on Compositional Quality in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  British Journal of Occupational Therapy 79 (10) (2016) pp.591-597
  ISSN: 0308-0226 eISSN: 1477-6006
  Abstract Introduction: There is substantial evidence to support the relationship between transcription skills (handwriting and spelling) and compositional quality. For children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) handwriting can be particularly challenging. While recent research has aimed to investigate their handwriting difficulties in more detail, the impact of transcription on their compositional quality has not previously been examined. The aim of this exploratory study was to examine compositional quality in children with DCD and to ascertain whether their transcription skills influence writing quality. 
  
  Method: Twenty eight children with DCD participated in the study, with 28 typically developing (TD) age and gender matched controls. The children completed the ‘free writing’ task from the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH), which was evaluated for compositional quality using the Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions (WOLD). 
   
  Results: The children with DCD performed significantly below their TD peers on 5 of the 6 WOLD items. They also had a higher percentage of misspelled words. Regression analyses indicated that the number of words produced per minute and the percentage of misspelled words explained 55% of the variance for compositional quality. 
   
  Conclusion: The handwriting difficulties so commonly reported in children with DCD have wider repercussions for the quality of written composition.
  Website 
• Wilmut K, Du W, Barnett AL, 'Gait patterns in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Experimental Brain Research 234 (6) (2016) pp.1747-1755
  ISSN: 0014-4819 eISSN: 1432-1106
  Abstract

  Previous research has shown that adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) show increased variability of foot placement measures and movement of the centre of mass (CoM) while walking. The current study considered the gait patterns of young and older children with DCD. Fourteen young children with DCD (7-12 years), 15 older children with DCD (12-17 years) and 29 age and gender matched typically developing children took part. Children were asked to walk up and down a flat 10m long pathway for one minute while the movement of their feet and trunk was recorded using motion analysis. The gait pattern of children with DCD was characterised by wider steps, elevated variability in the time spent in double support and stride time and greater medio-lateral velocity and acceleration compared to their peers. An elevated variability in medio-lateral acceleration was also seen in the young but not the older children with DCD. In addition, the young children showed a greater variability in velocity and acceleration in all three directions compared to the older children. The data suggest that the high incidence of trips and falls seen in children with DCD may be due to differences in the control of the centre of mass.

  Website 
• Du W, Barnett AL, Wilmut K, 'The role of movement variability and action experience in the perceptual judgement of passability'
  Journal of Motor Learning and Development 4 (2) (2016) pp.307-323
  ISSN: 2325-3193
  Abstract Perception and action are tightly coupled and previous studies have demonstrated that action experience can improve perceptual judgement. We investigated whether this improvement in perceptual judgement could be attributed to knowledge regarding movement variability being gained during action experience. Fifteen adults made perceptual judgments regarding the passability of a series of aperture sizes. These judgements were made both before and after walking through the same set of apertures (action experience). When considering the group as a whole perceptual judgement did not change after action experience. However, when splitting the group into those with low and high pre-action perceptual judgements, only those with low perceptual judgements showed an improvement in perceptual judgement following action experience and this could in part be explained by movement variability during the approach. These data demonstrate that action informs perception and that this allows adults to account for movement variability when making perceptual judgements regarding action capabilities.  Website 
• Barnett AL, Hill EL, Kirby A, Sugden DA, 'Adaptation and extension of the European recommendations (EACD) on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) for the UK context'
  Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics 35 (2) (2015) pp.103-115
  ISSN: 0194-2638
  Abstract

  Background. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) affects the learning and performance of everyday motor skills. It commonly co-occurs with other developmental disorders and a range of associated psycho-social impairments. Recent evidence-based guidelines on diagnosis, assessment and intervention provide valuable information for practitioners. However these are directed primarily at German-speaking countries and focus on work with children.

  Aim. The aim of this project was to consider the application of these guidelines in the UK and to extend them for use with adults with DCD.

  Methods. Individuals with DCD, parents and professionals from a wide range of disciplines were invited to two workshops to discuss and debate the guidelines, to adapt them for the UK and produce dissemination materials.

  Results. A working definition of DCD was agreed, minor revisions were made to the guidelines to reflect the UK context, an extension for adults was compiled and a series of leaflets was produced to disseminate this information to health and education professionals, parents and employers.

  Conclusions. This work will raise awareness of the condition across different professional groups. It provides information to help those working with children and adults with DCD in the UK to assist in the process of diagnosis, assessment and intervention.

  Website 
• Du W, Wilmut K, Barnett AL, 'Level walking in adults with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder: an analysis of movement variability'
  Human Movement Science 43 (2015) pp.9-14
  ISSN: 0167-9457
  Abstract

  Several studies have shown that Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a condition that continues beyond childhood. Although adults with DCD report difficulties with dynamic balance, as well as frequent tripping and bumping into objects, there have been no specific studies on walking in this population. Some previous work has focused on walking in children with DCD but variation in the tasks and measures used has led to inconsistent findings. The aim of the current study therefore was to examine the characteristics of level walking in adults with and without DCD. Fifteen adults with DCD and 15 typically developing (TD) controls walked barefoot at a natural pace up and down an 11 m walkway for one minute. Foot placement measures and velocity and acceleration of the body were recorded, as well as measures of movement variability. The adults with DCD showed similar gait patterns to the TD group in terms of step length, step width, double support time and stride time. The DCD group also showed similar velocity and acceleration to the TD group in the medio-lateral, anterior-posterior and vertical direction. However, the DCD group exhibited greater variability in all foot placement and some body movement measures. The finding that adults with DCD have a reduced ability to produce consistent movement patterns is discussed in relation to postural control limitations and compared to variability of walking measures found in elderly populations.

  Website 
• Wilmut K, Du W, Barnett AL, 'How do I fit through that gap? : navigation through apertures in adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  PLoS ONE 10 (4) (2015)
  ISSN: 1932-6203
  Abstract
  During everyday life we move around busy environments and encounter a range of obstacles,
  such as a narrow aperture forcing us to rotate our shoulders in order to pass through.
  In typically developing individuals the decision to rotate the shoulders is body scaled and
  this movement adaptation is temporally and spatially tailored to the size of the aperture.
  This is done effortlessly although it actually involves many complex skills. For individuals
  with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) moving in a busy environment and negotiating
  obstacles presents a real challenge which can negatively impact on safety and participation
  in motor activities in everyday life. However, we have a limited understanding of the
  nature of the difficulties encountered. Therefore, this current study considered how adults
  with DCD make action judgements and movement adaptations while navigating apertures.
  Fifteen adults with DCD and 15 typically developing (TD) controls passed through a series
  of aperture sizes which were scaled to body size (0.9-2.1 times shoulder width). Spatial and
  temporal characteristics of movement were collected over the approach phase and while
  crossing the aperture. The decision to rotate the shoulders was not scaled in the same way
  for the two groups, with the adults with DCD showing a greater propensity to turn for larger
  apertures compared to the TD adults when body size alone was accounted for. However,
  when accounting for degree of lateral trunk movement and variability on the approach, we
  no longer saw differences between the two groups. In terms of the movement adaptations,
  the adults with DCD approached an aperture differently when a shoulder rotation was required
  and then adapted their movement sooner compared to their typical peers. These results
  point towards an adaptive strategy in adults with DCD which allows them to account
  for their movement difficulties and avoid collision.
  Website 
• Alstad Z, Sanders E, Abbott RD, Barnett A, Henderson S, Connelly V, Berninger V, 'Modes of alphabet letter production during middle childhood and adolescence: Interrelationships with each other and other writing skills'
  Journal of Writing Research 6 (3) (2015) pp.199-231
  ISSN: 2030-1006
  Abstract

  Although handwriting is typically taught during early childhood and keyboarding may not be taught explicitly, both may be relevant to writing development in the later grades. Thus, Study 1 investigated automatic production of the ordered alphabet from memory for manuscript (unjoined), cursive (joined), and keyboard letter modes (alphabet 15 sec) and their relationships with each other and spelling and composing in typically developing writers in grades 4 to 7 (N = 113). Study 2 compared students with dysgraphia (impaired handwriting, n=27), dyslexia (impaired word spelling, n=40), or oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax composing, n=11) or controls without specific writing disabilities (n=10) in grades 4 to 9 (N=88) on the same alphabet 15 modes, manner of copying (best or fast), spelling, and sentence composing. In Study 1, sequential multilevel model regressions of predictor alphabet 15 letter production/selection modes on spelling and composition outcomes, measured annually from grade 4 to grade 7 (ages 9 to 13 years), showed that only the cursive mode uniquely, positively, and consistently predicted both spelling and composing in each grade. For composing, in grade 4 manuscript mode was positively predictive and in grades 5-7 keyboard selection was. In Study 2 all letter production modes correlated with each other and one’s best and fast sentence copying, spelling, and timed sentence composing. The groups with specific writing disabilities differed from control group on alphabet 15 manuscript mode, copy fast, and timed sentence composing. The dysgraphia and dyslexia groups differed on copying sentences in one’s best handwriting, with the dysgraphia group scoring lower. The educational and theoretical significance of the findings are discussed for multiple modes and manners of letter production/selection of the alphabet that support spelling and composing beyond the early grades in students with and without specific writing disabilities.   

  Website 
• Sumner E, Connelly V, Barnett A L, 'The Influence of Spelling Ability on Vocabulary Choices when Writing for Children with Dyslexia'
  Journal of Learning Disabilities 49 (3) (2014) pp.293-304
  ISSN: 0022-2194 eISSN: 1538-4780
  Abstract

  Spelling is a prerequisite to expressing vocabulary in writing. Research has shown that children with dyslexia are hesitant spellers when composing. This study aimed to determine whether the hesitant spelling of children with dyslexia, evidenced by frequent pausing, affects vocabulary choices when writing. A total of 31 children with dyslexia, mean age 9 years, were compared to typically developing groups of children: the first matched by age, the second by spelling ability. Oral vocabulary was measured and children completed a written and verbal compositional task. Lexical diversity comparisons were made across written and verbal compositions to highlight the constraint of having to select and spell words. A digital writing tablet recorded the writing. Children with dyslexia and the spelling-ability group made a high proportion of spelling errors and within-word pauses, and had a lower lexical diversity within their written compositions compared to their verbal compositions. The age-matched peers demonstrated the opposite pattern. Spelling ability and pausing predicted 53% of the variance in written lexical diversity of children with dyslexia, demonstrating the link between spelling and vocabulary when writing. Oral language skills had no effect. Lexical diversity correlated with written and verbal text quality for all groups. Practical implications are discussed and related to writing models.

  Website 
• Wiggs L, Sparrowhawk M, Barnett A, 'Sleep disturbance in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and links with daytime functioning'
  JOURNAL OF SLEEP RESEARCH 23 (s1) (2014) pp.319-319
  ISSN: 0962-1105 eISSN: 1365-2869
  Abstract Abstract of the 22nd Congress of the European Sleep Research Society, 16-20 September 2014, Tallinn, EstoniaWebsite 
• Sumner E, Connelly V, Barnett AL, 'The Influence of Spelling Ability on Handwriting Production: Children with and without Dyslexia'
  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 40 (5) (2014) pp.1441-1447
  ISSN: 0278-7393
  Abstract

  Current models of writing do not sufficiently address the complex relationship between the 2 transcription skills: spelling and handwriting. For children with dyslexia and beginning writers, it is conceivable that spelling ability will influence rate of handwriting production. Our aim in this study was to examine execution speed and temporal characteristics of handwriting when completing sentence-copying tasks that are free from composing demands and to determine the predictive value of spelling, pausing, and motor skill on handwriting production. Thirty-one children with dyslexia (Mage = 9 years 4 months) were compared with age-matched and spelling-ability matched children (Mage = 6 years 6 months). A digital writing tablet and Eye and Pen software were used to analyze handwriting. Children with dyslexia were able to execute handwriting at the same speed as the age-matched peers. However, they wrote less overall and paused more frequently while writing, especially within words. Combined spelling ability and within-word pausing accounted for over 76% of the variance in handwriting production of children with dyslexia, demonstrating that productivity relies on spelling capabilities. Motor skill did not significantly predict any additional variance in handwriting production. Reading ability predicted performance of the age-matched group, and pausing predicted performance for the spelling-ability group. The findings from the digital writing tablet highlight the interactive relationship between the transcription skills and how, if spelling is not fully automatized, it can constrain the rate of handwriting production. Practical implications are also addressed, emphasizing the need for more consideration to be given to what common handwriting tasks are assessing as a whole. 

  Website 
• Barnett A, 'Is There a “Movement Thermometer” for Developmental Coordination Disorder?'
  Current Developmental Disorders Reports 1 (2) (2014) pp.132-139
  ISSN: 2196-2987
  Abstract
  The defining feature of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a significant motor difficulty
  that has an impact on everyday life movement tasks. The notion of a ‘movement thermometer’ suggests that not only
  can the extent and severity of the motor impairment be accurately measured but also that its impact on daily activities can
  be gauged. Recent European guidelines on the assessment of children with DCD recommend several well-established motor
  tests and questionnaires for application in research and clinical practice. The formal assessment of adults, however, has been
  largely neglected, even though the persistence of the condition
  has been well documented. This article considers the assessment of motor behaviour and activities of daily living in
  children and adults with DCD, as well as the impact of associated features and environmental factors on the performance
  of everyday activities. It is argued that there is a need to go beyond the formal testing of motor skills in order to adequately
  assess the true ‘temperature’ or impact of the condition.
  The defining feature of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a significant motor difficulty that has an impact on everyday life movement tasks. The notion of a ‘movement thermometer’ suggests that not only can the extent and severity of the motor impairment be accurately measured but also that its impact on daily activities can be gauged. Recent European guidelines on the assessment of children with DCD recommend several well-established motor tests and questionnaires for application in research and clinical practice. The formal assessment of adults, however, has been largely neglected, even though the persistence of the condition
  has been well documented. This article considers the assessment of motor behaviour and activities of daily living in children and adults with DCD, as well as the impact of associated features and environmental factors on the performance
  of everyday activities. It is argued that there is a need to go beyond the formal testing of motor skills in order to adequately assess the true ‘temperature’ or impact of the condition.
  Website 
• Prunty M, Barnett AL, Wilmut K, Plumb MS, 'An examination of writing pauses in the handwriting of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 35 (11) (2014) pp.2894-2905
  ISSN: 0891-4222
  Abstract

  Difficulties with handwriting are reported as one of the main reasons for the referral of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) to healthcare professionals. In a recent study we found that children with DCD produced less text than their typically developing (TD) peers and paused for 60% of a free-writing task. However, little is known about the nature of the pausing; whether they are long pauses possibly due to higher level processes of text generation or fatigue, or shorter pauses related to the movements between letters. This gap in the knowledge-base creates barriers to understanding the handwriting difficulties in children with DCD. The aim of this study was to characterise the pauses observed in the handwriting of English children with and without DCD. Twenty-eight 8–14 year-old children with a diagnosis of DCD participated in the study, with 28 TD age and gender matched controls. Participants completed the 10 min free-writing task from the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH) on a digitising writing tablet. The total overall percentage of pausing during the task was categorised into four pause time-frames, each derived from the literature on writing (250 ms to 2 s; 2–4 s; 4–10 s and >10 s). In addition, the location of the pauses was coded (within word/between word) to examine where the breakdown in the writing process occurred. The results indicated that the main group difference was driven by more pauses above 10 s in the DCD group. In addition, the DCD group paused more within words compared to TD peers, indicating a lack of automaticity in their handwriting. These findings may support the provision of additional time for children with DCD in written examinations. More importantly, they emphasise the need for intervention in children with DCD to promote the acquisition of efficient handwriting skill.

  Website 
• Wilmut K, Byrne M, Barnett A L, 'Reaching to throw compared to reaching to place: a comparison across individuals with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 34 (1) (2013) pp.174-182
  ISSN: 0891-4222
  Abstract

  When picking up an object, adults show a longer deceleration phase when the onward action has a greater precision requirement. Tailoring action in this way is thought to need forward modelling in order to predict the consequences of movement. Some evidence suggests that young children also tailor reaching in this way; however, how this skill develops in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is unknown. The current study compared the kinematics of reaching to an object when the onward intention was: to place the object on a target (either with high or low precision requirements), to throw the object or to lift the object vertically. Movements of both adults (N=18) and children (N=24) with DCD and their age-matched controls were recorded. The typically developing adults discriminated across all action types, the adults with DCD and the typically developing children only across the actions to place and throw and the children with DCD only between the actions to lift and throw. The results demonstrate developmental progression towards fine tuning the planning of reaching in relation to onward intentions. Both adults and children with DCD are able to plan movement using inverse models but this skill is not yet fully developed in early adulthood.

  Website 
• Barnett A, Plumb M, Wilmut K, 'Handwriting Speed in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: Are They Really Slower?'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 34 (2013) pp.2927-2936
  ISSN: 0891-4222
  Abstract Handwriting difficulties are often included in descriptions of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). They are cited as the most common reason for referral to health professionals following parent and teacher concerns about slow and untidy writing. The aim of this study was to compare handwriting performance in English children with and without DCD across a range of writing tasks, to gain a better understanding of the nature of 'slowness' so commonly reported. Twenty-eight 8-14 year-old children with a diagnosis of DCD participated in the study, with 28 typically developing age and gender matched controls. Participants completed the four handwriting tasks from the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH) and wrote their own name; all on a digitising writing tablet. The number of words written, speed of pen movements and the time spent pausing during the tasks were calculated. The findings confirmed what many professionals report, that children with DCD produce less text than their peers. However, this was not due to slow movement execution, but rather a higher percentage of time spent pausing. Discussion centres on the understanding of the pausing phenomenon in children with DCD and areas for further research.Website 
• Barnett A, Dawes H, Wilmut K, 'Constraints and facilitators to participation in physical activity in teenagers with DCD: an exploratory interview study'
  Child: Care, Health and Development 39 (3) (2013) pp.393-403
  ISSN: 0305-1862 eISSN: 1365-2214
  Abstract Background Despite their movement difficulties, youngsters with Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) generally have sufficient capability for physical activity. However, they tend to be less physically active and less physically fit than their well co-ordinated age peers. The aim of this study was to use qualitative research methods to understand which factors constrain and facilitate participation in physical activity in teenagers with DCD, in order to help inform future health promotion programmes.
  Method Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight teenagers with DCD (aged 13-15) and their parents. The interviews focused on how much physical activity was typically undertaken by the child and the perceived constraints and facilitators to being physically active. Interviews were transcribed and subjected to categorical-content analysis.Results Half of the children and all but one of the parents reported that the children did little physical activity. Although most children disliked competitive team games, they reported many physical activities that they did enjoy and they reported wanting to be more physically active. Perceived internal constraints to participation included poor motor skill, lack of motivation and reports of fatiguing easily. Perceived external constraints included difficulty travelling to activities, negative comments from peers and teachers' lack of understanding of DCD.Conclusions Reports of low levels of physical activity support previous literature and are a cause for concern for this group. The teenagers expressed the desire to be more active, yet the interviews revealed both personal and environmental constraints to engagement in physical activity. It is clear that these factors interact in a dynamic way and that teachers, schools and communities play an important role in creating a motivational environment for youngsters with DCD to engage in physical activity and learn to maintain an active lifestyle as they move into adulthood.Website 
• Wilmut K, Barnett A L, 'To Throw Or to Place: Does Onward Intention Affect How a Child Reaches for An Object?'
  Experimental Brain Research 226 (2013) pp.421-429
  ISSN: 0014-4819 eISSN: 1432-1106
  Abstract Picking up an object is a seemingly simple and isolated task; however, research has demonstrated that adults plan a reach-to-grasp movement on the basis of forthcoming actions. For example a greater deceleration period is seen in an initial reach movement which precedes a place movement compared to a throw movement. This task-specific or second-order motor planning is also seen in infants and toddlers; however, the developmental progression is unclear. Reach-to-grasp movements of 48 children, split into four age groups (4–5, 6–7, 8–9 and 10–11 years) were recorded. These movements preceded a tight place, a loose place or a throw action. All the children showed some degree of tailoring kinematics to the onward action. In the 4–5 year-old group, this was demonstrated by a longer movement duration in the place actions compared to the throw action. In the older children the proportion of time spent decelerating increased as the precision requirements of the task increased. These results demonstrate that all children are able to use second-order planning to integrate onward task demands into their movements. The capacity for this increases with age but is not fully mature at 11 years. These developmental effects may be explained by the relative weighting of costs involved in tailoring a reach action compared to the benefits of producing a more efficient onward action.Website 
• Connelly V, Barnett A, 'Children with dyslexia are slow writers because they pause more often and not because they are slow at handwriting execution'
  Reading and Writing 26 (6) (2012) pp.991-1008
  ISSN: 0922-4777 eISSN: 1573-0905
  Abstract It is commonly assumed that children with dyslexia are slower at handwriting than other children. However, evidence of slow handwriting in children with dyslexia is very mixed. Thirty-one children with dyslexia, aged 9 years, were compared to both age-matched children and younger spelling-ability matched children. Participants completed an alphabet-writing task and a composition task on the surface of a digital writing tablet. Children with dyslexia wrote the same amount of letters per minute in the alphabet task but wrote fewer words per minute when composing their texts than children of the same age. Crucially, no differences were found between children with dyslexia and their same age peers for speed of handwriting execution, measured by the tablet, when writing the alphabet or composing their texts. However, children with dyslexia were found to pause within their compositions as often as the spelling ability matched group. Thus handwriting execution is not impaired in children with dyslexia. The slow writing that is typical of children with dyslexia is due to pausing more often when composing and is related to spelling ability. This may reflect processing problems in response to high cognitive load through having to contend with spelling and composing concurrently.Website 
• Siaperas P, Ring H, McAllister C, Henderson S, Barnett A, Watson P, Holland A, 'Atypical Movement Performance and Sensory Integration in Asperger's Syndrome'
  Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 42 (5) (2012) pp.718-725
  ISSN: 0162-3257
  Abstract

  The aims of this study were to investigate whether individuals with AS have impaired motor abilities and sensorimotor processing and whether these impairments were age-related. Sensorimotor abilities were examined using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, and the Sensory Integration Praxis Test. Fifty boys with AS aged 7-14 years old were compared with typically developing boys. Overall, children with AS showed significant impairment of movement performance as well as proprioceptive and vestibular processing. There were no interaction effects of age and clinical group on level of performance deficit in any of the modalities tested. Increasing our understanding of motor and sensory impairment in AS could have treatment implications for those supporting individuals with AS.

  Website 
• Barnett A, Wiggs L, 'Sleep behaviour in children with developmental co-ordination disorder'
  Child: Care, Health and Development 38 (3) (2011) pp.403-411
  ISSN: 0305-1862 eISSN: 1365-2214
  Abstract Background Children with developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) experience significant difficulty in the performance of everyday movement skills in the absence of obvious neurological, sensory or intellectual impairment. They often underachieve academically and have higher rates of anxiety than their typically developing peers. Such factors are known to be associated with sleep problems in other clinical populations but the sleep patterns of children with DCD have not been examined. Information about the frequency and nature of sleep problems in DCD will aid our understanding of this developmental disorder. It may also be clinically helpful, alerting clinicians to potential difficulties so that these can be identified early and appropriate support offered. Objective To examine sleep behaviour of children with DCD compared with typically developing control children. Methods Two groups of 16 boys aged 8 to 12 years (M = 10.28, SD = 1.28) participated: (1) the DCD group had Movement ABC-2 Checklist scores below the 5th percentile; (2) an age-matched control group of typically developing children had Movement ABC-2 Checklist scores above the 15th percentile. Parents of children from both groups completed the Children" s Sleep Habits Questionnaire. Results & discussion The total sleep disturbance score was significantly higher for children with DCD compared with the control group (U = 24, P < 0.001). Subscale scores indicated particular problems with bedtime resistance (U = 77.5, P < 0.05), parasomnias (U = 28.5, P < 0.001) and daytime sleepiness (U = 58.00, P < 0.01). There were no differences between the groups for sleep onset delay, sleep duration, night wakings and sleep-disordered breathing. These preliminary results suggest that sleep patterns of children with DCD may be of clinical relevance and are worthy of further investigation.Website 
• Wilmut K, Barnett A L, 'Locomotor behaviour of children while navigating through apertures'
  Experimental Brain Research 210 (2) (2011) pp.185-194
  ISSN: 0014-4819 eISSN: 1432-1106
  Abstract

  During everyday locomotion, we encounter a range of obstacles requiring specific motor responses; a narrow aperture which forces us to rotate our shoulders in order to pass through is one example. In adults, the decision to rotate their shoulders is body scaled (Warren and Whang in J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 13:371-383, 1987), and the movement through is temporally and spatially tailored to the aperture size (Higuchi et al. in Exp Brain Res 175:50-59, 2006; Wilmut and Barnett in Hum Mov Sci 29:289-298, 2010). The aim of the current study was to determine how 8-to 10-year-old children make action judgements and movement adaptations while passing through a series of five aperture sizes which were scaled to body size (0.9, 1.1, 1.3, 1.5 and 1.7 times shoulder width). Spatial and temporal characteristics of movement speed and shoulder rotation were collected over the initial approach phase and while crossing the doorway threshold. In terms of making action judgements, results suggest that the decision to rotate the shoulders is not scaled in the same way as adults, with children showing a critical ratio of 1.61. Shoulder angle at the door could be predicted, for larger aperture ratios, by both shoulder angle variability and lateral trunk variability. This finding supports the dynamical scaling model (Snapp-Childs and Bingham in Exp Brain Res 198:527-533, 2009). In terms of movement adaptations, we have shown that children, like adults, spatially and temporally tailor their movements to aperture size.

  Website 
• Hill E, Barnett A, 'Movement difficulties in children'
  Psychologist 24 (1) (2011) pp.34-37
  ISSN: 0952-8229
  Abstract The development of adequate motor control and coordination is an important part of general development, allowing an infant to interact with and learn about the world around them and making possible so many everyday activities for children - at home, at school and at play. We know that severe neurological disorders such as cerebral palsy and muscular dystrophy can have devastating effects on movement. But the effects of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are perhaps less well known. What is our current understanding of the nature and impact of this condition? And how might psychologists help? Website 
• Barnett A, Henderson S, Scheib B, Schulz J, 'Handwriting Difficulties and Their Assessment in Young Adults with DCD: Extension of the DASH for 17-to 25-Year-Olds'
  Journal of Adult Development 18 (3) (2011) pp.114-121
  ISSN: 1068-0667
  Abstract Handwriting difficulties are common in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and frequently continue into adulthood. In spite of increased computer use, handwriting remains an essential everyday life skill. The Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH) provides an objective measure of handwriting performance for students aged 9-16 years. No equivalent test for adults exists. The aim of this study is to explore developmental trends beyond the age of 16 on the five tasks included in the DASH and to describe the employment of these data in an extension of the test for 17-to 25-year-olds (DASH 17+). A case study is included to illustrate its use in the assessment of young adults with DCD. Three hundred and ninety-three students between the ages of 17 and 25 completed the test. The sample was selected to represent the population of UK students in post-16 education. Statistically significant, but overall modest developmental trends in handwriting performance were found for all tasks. Depending on the task, the year-on-year average increase in performance followed a linear or non-linear trend. Gender effects were generally small. DASH 17+ will provide useful information on any individual whose handwriting is causing concern, including those with, or suspected of having DCD. Website 
• Barnett A, 'Benefits of exercise on cognitive performance in schoolchildren'
  Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 7 (53) (2011) pp.580-580
  ISSN: 0012-1622 eISSN: 1469-8749
  Abstract CommentaryWebsite 
• Barnett A, 'Motor impairment in extremely preterm or low birthweight children'
  Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 53 (1) (2011) pp.9-10
  ISSN: 0012-1622 eISSN: 1469-8749
  Abstract CommentaryWebsite 
• Barnett A, 'Movement Difficulties in Children'
  Psychologist 24 (2011) pp.34-37
  ISSN: 0952-8229
  Website 
• Schulz J, Henderson S E, Sugden D A, Barnett A L, 'Structural validity of the movement ABC-2 test: factor structure comparisons across three age groups'
  Research in Developmental Disabilities 32 (4) (2011) pp.1361-1369
  ISSN: 0891-4222
  Abstract

  Background The Movement ABC test is one of the most widely used assessments in the field of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Improvements to the 2nd edition of the test (M-ABC-2) include an extension of the age range and reduction in the number of age bands as well as revision of tasks. The total test score provides a measure of motor performance, which can be used to help make a diagnosis of DCD. M-ABC-2 also provides 3 sub-scales for Manual Dexterity, Aiming and Catching and Balance but the validity of these conceptually derived sub-scales has not previously been reported. Aim To examine the factor structure of the M-ABC-2 test across the three age bands (AB): AB1 (3-6-year olds), AB2 (7-10-year olds) and AB3 (11-16-year olds). Method Data from the 2007 standardisation sample (N = 1172) were used in this study. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and structural equation modelling (LISREL 8.8) were employed to explore the relationship between the tasks within each of the 3 age bands. A model trimming approach was used to arrive at a well fitting model. Results In AB1 a complex factor structure emerged providing evidence for an independent general factor, as well as specific factors representing the 3 test components. In AB2 a final model emerged with four correlated factors, an additional distinction being drawn between static and dynamic balance. In addition, a 2nd order general factor explained a considerable amount of variance in each primary factor. In AB3 CFA supported the 3-factor structure of the M-ABC-2, with only modest correlations between each factor. Conclusions The confirmatory factor analyses undertaken in this study further validate the structural validity of the M-ABC-2 as it has developed over time. Although its tasks are largely associated with the three sub-components within each age band, there was also clear evidence for a change in the factor structure towards differentiation in motor abilities with age. Research highlights The factor analyses undertaken support the structure of the Movement ABC 2 Test. Results suggest a developmental process towards specialization in movement abilities.The results have clinical as well as theoretical significance.

  Website 
• Wilmut K, Barnett A, 'Locomotor adjustments when navigating through apertures'
  Human Movement Science 29 (2) (2010) pp.289-298
  ISSN: 0167-9457
  Abstract During everyday locomotion we encounter a range of obstacles which require specific motor responses, for example a narrow aperture forces us to rotate the shoulders to pass through. Research has demonstrated that the decision to rotate the shoulders is body scaled (Warren & Whang, 1987) and that the visuo-motor system generates a rotation proportional to aperture size (Higuchi, Cinelli, Greig, & Patla, 2006). The current study considered how shoulder angle and movement speed are tailored to aperture size in nine adults. Aperture sizes were classified into shoulder/aperture ratios (SA ratio), including two for which participants had to rotate (0.9/1.1) and two for which participants could pass freely (1.5/1.7). During the initial approach phase (first 3 s), shoulder rotation and movement speed were invariant across SA ratio. Later in the movement, angle of shoulder rotation and the magnitude and timing of the reduction in speed were proportional to SA ratio. The timing of the reduction in speed was progressively later in the movement as SA ratio increased, suggesting early adjustments of movement, such as the timing of the reduction in speed are tightly tuned to the ratio between aperture size and shoulder width, even when no later body adjustments are needed.Website 
• Barnett A L, 'Motor assessment in developmental coordination disorder (DCD): from identification to intervention'
  International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 55 (2) (2008) pp.113-129
  ISSN: 1034-912X
  Abstract A description of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is included in the Diagnostic Manual of the American Psychiatric Association fourth edition (DSM-IV-TR). The major feature of this condition is impairment in motor skill, which has a negative impact on the performance of everyday life tasks. The present review outlines major issues concerning the assessment of motor performance in DCD. First, the psychometric principles of reliability and validity are considered, together with a discussion of test norms. This is followed by a review of 5 major purposes of assessment: screening and identification, measurement of motor performance, making a diagnosis, understanding the nature and mechanisms of the condition, and planning for intervention. In each case, the relevant assessment tools are identified and their application discussed. The article concludes with recommendations for future work, which include the need to refine the DCD diagnostic criteria in order to offer a more principled approach to the selection of assessment techniques. Website 
• Barnett A, 'Cognitive Outcome at Early School Age in Term- Born Children With Perinatally Acquired Middle Cerebral Artery Territory Infarction'
  Stroke 39 (2008) pp.403-410
  ISSN: 0039-2499
  Website 

Book chapters

• Wilmut K, Barnett A, 'Movement Coordination, Control & Skill Acquisition in DCD' in Barnett A, Hill E (ed.), Understanding Motor Behaviour in DCD, Routledge (2019)
  ISBN: 9781138287501 eISBN: 9781315268231
  Abstract

  DCD is commonly described as a motor learning disorder. However, surprisingly few studies have specifically examined motor skill learning in individuals with DCD. This chapter will begin by describing studies which have considered skill acquisition in a DCD population. The findings of these studies will then be discussed in light of the theoretical framework put forward in the previous chapter by Newell and Pacheco. Furthermore, we will address issues surrounding motor control in this population including the lack of research focusing on coordination in Developmental Coordination Disorder and we will discuss the issue of variability of movement within a DCD context.
  

  Website 
• Green D, Arscott C, Barnett AL, Henderson L, Henderson SE, Huber J, May A, Baird G, 'Impairment of movement and social difficulties in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (Asperger Syndrome) and Developmental Coordination Disorder -how are they perceived by the children and their teachers?' in Moving, Developing and Learning. A Festschrift in celebration of the career of Sheila E. Henderson, Oxford Brookes University (2015)
  ISBN: 978-1-873640-87-6
  
• Barnett A L, Henderson S E, Scheib B, Schulz J, 'Development and standardization of a new handwriting speed test: The Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH)' in BJEP Monograph Series II, 6, Wiley: 12 months (2009)
  ISSN: 0007-0998 eISSN: 2044-8279
  Abstract Background. Handwriting remains an important skill throughout a student's school career and beyond. Only when the basic elements of this skill can be performed 'automatically' and quickly, can sufficient processing capacity be allocated to higher level components of writing such as composition. Although problems with handwriting are common and can lead to academic underachievement, few tools are available to measure handwriting quality or speed. Aim. The aim of this paper is to describe the development and UK standardization of a comprehensive test of handwriting speed, the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting. Methods. A stratified sample of 546 children between the ages of 9 and 16 performed five tasks: copying under 'best' and 'fast' instructions, writing the alphabet, free writing for 10 min, and a non-language based task involving drawing intersecting lines within concentric circles. Conclusions. Our data suggest that standard scores on the first four tasks plus a composite score of speed of writing may be used to provide objective evidence of 'slowness' of handwriting. In addition, the profile of scores across tasks along with standard scores on the fifth task, provide practitioners working in health and educational settings with supplementary information useful for describing the needs of those with handwriting difficulties in more detail. Preliminary data showing adequate reliability and validity of this new instrument are also reported. Website 

Other publications

• Barnett A, 'Cognitive Outcome at Early School Age in Term-born Children With Perinatally Acquired Middle Cerebral Artery Territory Infarction'
  Acta Paediatrica 96 (2008) pp.170-170ISSN: 0803-5253 eISSN: 1651-2227
  
• Barnett A, 'Developmental Coordination Disorder: Current Issues'
  32 (2006) pp.613-618Website 

Areas of expertise

Motor Development, Perceptual- Motor Control & Learning, Teaching & Learning of Handwriting, Developmental Assessment. 

Press, publicity and reviews

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