Professor Anna Nekaris

As road infrastructure networks rapidly expand globally, especially in the tropics, previously continuous habitats are being fragmented, resulting in more frequent wildlife–vehicle collisions (WVC). Primates are widespread throughout many sub-/tropical countries, and as their habitats are fragmented, they are increasingly at risk of WVC. We created the Global Primate Roadkill Database (GPRD), the largest available standardized database of primate roadkill incidents. We obtained data from published papers, un-published and citizen science databases, anecdotal reports, news reports, and social media posts. Here, we describe the collection methods for the GPRD and present the most up-to-date version of the database in full. For each primate roadkill incident, we recorded the species killed, the exact location, and the year and month the roadkill was observed. At the time of publication, the GPRD includes 2862 individual primate roadkill records from 41 countries. As primates range in more than twice as many countries, the absence of data from these countries is not necessarily indicative of a lack of primate vehicular collisions. Given the value of these data for addressing both local and global research questions, we encourage conservationists and citizen scientists to contribute to the GPRD so that, together, we can better understand the impact road infrastructure has on primates and evaluate measures which may help mitigate risk-prone areas or species.

The worldwide pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 challenged conservation organizations. The lack of tourism has benefited or negatively affected wildlife organizations in various ways, with several primate sanctuaries struggling to cope with the COVID-19 crisis and to keep providing for their inhabitants. In addition, the genetic similarity between great apes and humans puts them at higher risk than any other species for the transmission of COVID-19. PASA is a non-profit organization comprising 23 sanctuaries, and cares for many species of primate, including African great apes. In light of the pandemic, we aimed to understand the direct effects of COVID-19 on PASA management throughout three time periods: before (2018–2019), at the start of (2019–2020), and during (2020–2021) the pandemic. We collected data via annual surveys for PASA members and ran Generalized Linear Mixed Models to highlight any significant differences in their management that could be linked to COVID-19. Our findings demonstrated no particular impact on the number of primates rescued, employees, or expenses. However, revenues have been decreasing post-COVID-19 due to the lack of income from tourism and volunteer programs. Nonetheless, our results reveal a form of resilience regarding the sanctuaries and the strategy applied to maintain their management. Consequently, we emphasize the specific impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak and its repercussions for conservation work. We discuss the difficulties that sanctuaries have faced throughout the crisis and present the best measures to prevent future outbreaks and protect biodiversity.

Introduction: Decontextualization is a concept from psychology whereby new words are learned outside of the context of the here-and-now. Decontextualized language is used for discussing abstract concepts and is crucial to the development of academic language. When it comes to images, a dearth of context can lead to a lack of clarity, such as the use of ambiguous decontextualized images in environmental communication, leading to the promotion of greenwashing. Here we refer to decontextualization as the removal of wildlife from their wild ecological context. Images and videos of globally threatened species are increasingly popular on social media. Showing such taxa alongside humans may impact public perceptions of their abundance and need for conservation and can increase illegal trade. One group of animals that are particularly popular on social media platforms are the slow and pygmy lorises (Nycticebus spp., Xanthonycticebus spp.).

Methods: Here, we examined 100 videos from three popular social media platforms (YouTube, TikTok, and Giphy) to calculate how often and in which ways these videos remove slow lorises from their natural ecological and behavioural context. We also examined views and likes to determine viewer engagement trends. We used relevant content from each site to assess the presence of decontextualization using five conditions.

Results: In all but two videos, conditions of decontextualization were present and 77% of all videos had four to five conditions of decontextualization. Using Spearman correlation, we found a significant effect of decontextualization scores on the number of views and likes for YouTube and TikTok videos. Views were significantly higher when videos presented animals in anthropogenic settings (i.e., in human-made structures or in proximity of human artefacts). Additionally, views on TikTok and YouTube were significantly higher when animals displayed signs of stress or ill health and when they were in unnatural conditions.

Discussion: Our case study of lorises provides an example of the danger of decontextualizing wild animals on social media. Public preference for imagery where animals are neglected is indicative that better guidelines need to be put in place and policed by social media platforms. Additionally, conservationists need to develop strategies to promote wild imagery and further explore decontextualization if we are to understand and address the drivers of the rampant illegal wildlife trade online.

Agricultural expansion has had a detrimental effect on tropical forests and the animal communities that depend on them. Agroforestry systems, however, with their more complex tree and plant communities, have been shown to be important habitats for a range of globally threatened species, including nocturnal animals. Here, we present novel data on the encounter rates of seven species of nocturnal mammals in relation to agroforestry systems within four national parks and associated plantations in Bangladesh to examine if encounter rates were influenced by the human population density, presence of plantations, and human access as represented by a Human Influence Index of anthropogenic disturbance. We walked 70.3 km of transects with only semi-natural forest, 26.9 km of transects with semi-natural forest and gardens, and 21.7 km of transects with semi-natural forest and monocultures over 55 nights from 2017–2019. Of the seven species of nocturnal mammals we detected, all were present in Satachari National Park, whereas six occurred in Lawachara National Park, Rajkandi Forest Range, and Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary. Within these national parks, three species (Bengal slow loris, large Indian civet, particolored flying squirrel) were more frequently recorded in areas with human disturbance, especially agroforestry plantations. With declining forest cover in Bangladesh, we highlight here the potential of agroforestry systems as emerging important habitats for these species. We encourage long-term studies of these lesser-studied taxa to understand fully the capacity of agroforestry systems in order to support their long-term conservation.

Vector-borne diseases spread from wild animals and their associated ectoparasites to humans and domesticated animals. Wildlife markets are recognized as important areas where this transfer can take place. We assessed the potential for spreading vector-borne diseases in two live and wet markets in Myanmar (Mong La, on the Myanmar-China border) and Indonesia (Sukahaji in Bandung on the island of Java) by making an inventory of all live and freshly killed wild mammals for sale. For eight mammal families, we quantified the number of animals on offer, and we used a heatmap cluster analysis to map vector-borne diseases that these families may carry. In Myanmar, we observed large numbers of wild pigs and deer (potentially carrying West Nile and various encephalitis viruses) whereas in Indonesia we observed Old World fruit bats (potentially carrying Chikungunya and encephalitis viruses) and squirrels (potentially carrying West Nile and encephalitis viruses). The trade in Indonesia was dominated by live mammals offered for sale as pets, and only Old World fruit bats and squirrels traded for traditional Asian medicine were killed in the markets. The trade in Myanmar was more geared towards wild meat (e.g., wild pigs, deer, primates) and traditional Asian medicine (squirrels). The combined risks of vector-borne diseases spreading from traded animals to human health highlight the need for an integrated approach protecting public health, economic interests and biodiversity.

Edge effects result from interactions between adjacent habitats, which can modify abiotic and biotic conditions and produce various negative effects on biodiversity. Given the high degree of forest fragmentation in Madagascar, understanding lemur responses to edges is a conservation priority. We aim to determine the depth of edge influence in a continuous low-land rainforest of south-eastern Madagascar and identify the response of six lemur species. We surveyed lemur abundance along nine 1 km transects from May 2015 to July 2016 totaling 112.2 km of survey effort during the day and 88.5 km at night. We characterized the habitat structure via 33 plots centered along the line transects. We used Generalized Additive Models and Generalized Linear Models to test the effect of distance from the forest edge on vegetation parameters and animal encounter rates. Edge effect on the vegetation structure can be detected up to around 100 m in terms of tree diversity and density. We found a negative edge response for Madame Fleurette’s sportive lemurs (Lepilemur fleuretae) and collared brown lemurs (Eulemur collaris), and a positive edge response for Anosy mouse lemurs (Microcebus tanosi), Southern bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur meridionalis) and Southern woolly lemurs (Avahi meridionalis). Since around half of the forested areas in Madagascar are within 100 m of forest edge, taking into account edge effect is vital when producing estimates of population sizes and informing conservation management.

Southeast Asia is considered a global hotspot of emerging zoonotic diseases. There, wildlife is commonly traded under poor sanitary conditions in open markets; these markets have been considered ‘the perfect storm’ for zoonotic disease transmission. We assessed the potential of wildlife trade in spreading viral diseases by quantifying the number of wild animals of four mammalian orders (Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and Primates) on sale in 14 Indonesian wildlife markets and identifying zoonotic viruses potentially hosted by these animals. We constructed a network analysis to visualize the animals that are traded alongside each other that may carry similar viruses. We recorded 6725 wild animals of at least 15 species on sale. Cities and markets with larger human population and number of stalls, respectively, offered more individuals for sale. Eight out of 15 animal taxa recorded are hosts of 17 zoonotic virus species, nine of which can infect more than one species as a host. The network analysis showed that long-tailed macaque has the greatest potential for spreading viral diseases, since it is simultaneously the most traded species, sold in 13/14 markets, and a potential host for nine viruses. It is traded alongside pig-tailed macaques in three markets, with which it shares six viruses in common (Cowpox, Dengue, Hepatitis E, Herpes B, Simian foamy, and Simian retrovirus type D). Short-nosed fruit bats and large flying foxes are potential hosts of Nipah virus and are also sold in large quantities in 10/14 markets. This study highlights the need for better surveillance and sanitary conditions to avoid the negative health impacts of unregulated wildlife markets.

Volunteer tourists, often foreigners, collect essential data in wildlife conservation projects worldwide. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, international tourism activities reduced drastically, forcing many conservation projects to shut down. Using a nine-year (2013–2021) case study in Indonesia, we examine how local and foreign tourists construct the meaning of their volunteer experiences in the light of COVID-19. We aim to highlight the potential benefits of local volunteer tourism to face the travel limitations posed by COVID-19, and to show an example of how conservation projects can overcome the challenges of the current and potential future pandemics. We recruited 117 volunteers (49 Indonesians, 68 foreign; 73 females, 44 males; mean age: 24.2 ± SD 4.7) that collected 50.8% of the total amount of data collected by the project over the same period. Of the 117 volunteers, 81 of them (38 Indonesians, 43 foreigners) filled in a feedback form at the end of their stay. Via logistic regressions, we found that Indonesian volunteers declared more positive feedback on the logistics at the research station (p = 0.047). Via Bayesian structural equation models, we found that Indonesian volunteers reported significantly more frequently than foreign volunteers that they learned new skills (89% Credible Interval = 0.017–0.351) and that they gained personal wisdom, growth and maturity (89% Credible Interval = 0.891–1.003) from the volunteer experience. The volunteer program evolved from being 100% foreign volunteers in 2013 to 100% Indonesian volunteers by 2020 at the peak of the pandemic, which helped maintain the continuity of the research and conservation activities. We presented the positive implications of shifting towards local volunteer tourists in a long-term conservation project. We suggest that promoting local volunteer tourism through training new generations of nationals in conservation projects is key to guarantee the persistence of such initiatives in the post-COVID-19 Era.

Conservation education programs are listed as priority actions for almost every threatened species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. Zoos play an important role in delivering such programs, yet evidence of zoo education in many non-western countries is limited. Here, we evaluate animal identification signage prevalence and quality at zoo exhibits and investigate whether animal welfare, zoo type (accredited, government, and private), admission fee, zoo size, and proximity to urban centers are influencing factors. We used hornbills (Bucerotidae) as a model taxon, surveyed hornbill signage, and conducted welfare assessments of hornbill exhibits. We developed scoring frameworks and applied content analysis to analyze signage quality. Our results show that out of 18 zoos that displayed hornbills, 15 had hornbill signage. However, of the 106 hornbill exhibits in these zoos, 33% had no signage. We also found that signage presence or absence at individual zoos and signage quality is strongly correlated with animal welfare quality. Zoo type is a key factor in predicting signage and welfare quality, with accredited zoos scoring highest for both signage and welfare, followed by government and private zoos. Private zoos charged higher admission than other zoo types, and zoo size and proximity to urban centers did not influence signage or welfare scores. Overall, we conclude that in our study, signage usage and quality are inadequate, highlighting the importance of compliance with robust zoo standards to improve education and welfare within zoos to support global conservation goals.

Context

Crop pest outbreaks are expected to become more frequent and unpredictable due to climate change, posing risks to ecosystem health and farmers’ livelihoods. At the same time, there is growing evidence that chemical pesticides can persist in the landscape and contribute to land degradation. The use of natural pesticides in place of chemical pesticides is hoped to manage pest outbreaks while also restoring pollinator populations and improving the quality of arable land. During the 1970s, many countries committed to promoting and legislating Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies (encouraging natural and holistic approaches to pest management), often including using natural pesticides, known as biopesticides.

Objective

We assessed the effectiveness of a biopesticide on coffee berry borer (CBB; Hypothenemus hampei) presence in 57 small-holder coffee home gardens in West Java, Indonesia across three years.

Methods

Prior to the application of the biopesticide, we randomly chose ten coffee plants from each field and recorded the proportion of healthy berries per plant (berries without pest infestation) as a control. In April 2020, we distributed the biopesticide in each of the 57 coffee home gardens and repeated the above experiment. The biopesticide was redistributed in October 2020 and April 2021. We repeated the experiment for the last time in April 2021.

Results and conclusions

We found that CBB presence significantly decreased, with an inverse relationship between distance to natural forest and CBB presence and a positive relationship between shade cover and CBB presence. We also interviewed farmers in April 2021 to investigate their perception of the effectiveness of the biopesticide and 87% of farmers thought it was more effective than conventional pesticides.

Significance

We contribute to the growing literature on the effectiveness of natural pesticides through assessing farmers’ perceptions of these methods and providing empirical evidence for their effectiveness in remedying CBB infestation. We hope that this study will empower farmers to make conscious land-use choices and provide government authorities with evidence to support increased accessibility to biopesticides.

The activity patterns of mammals depend on environmental changes (e.g., moon luminosity, food availability, weather) and endogenous rhythms. Behavioral observations are traditionally used to estimate the activity patterns of animals, but low visibility and the cryptic nature of some species entail that, in certain conditions, the animal is visible only for around 60% of the time. Recent advances in technology allow automatic data collection on the activity levels of animals. We used five years of data collected via accelerometers to understand how moon luminosity, seasonality, sex, and weather conditions influence the activity levels of the nocturnal and cryptic Javan slow loris. We collected 9589 h on six females and 7354 h on six males. Via Generalized Additive Mixed Models, we found that lorises are lunarphobic; they reduce activity levels during cold nights, they have higher activity levels when the relative humidity is close to 100%, and they have high peaks of activity between December and February and between June and August. The activity levels are thus influenced by avoidance of predators, food availability, consumption of insects and nectar, physiological, and behavioral adaptations to cold temperatures and energy requirements during reproductive stages. We highlight the importance of using bio-loggers for cryptic animals as with behavioral observations only, and the observer might underestimate active behaviors and overestimate inactivity.

For over 100 years, non-human primates (primates) have been a part of the now hundred-billion-dollar global film industry in a variety of capacities. Their use in the film industry is of concern due to the negative welfare effects on individuals, the potential for increased pet trade, and the conservation impacts of public perception. While the effects on human perception of using live primates in film have been studied, little research has been performed on their appearance in animation and none in computer-generated imagery (CGI). We aimed to investigate how the portrayal of primates varied between depiction medium types and how this related to the films’ performance with critics and in the box office. We observed 151 primates in 101 different English-speaking films that debuted between 2000 and 2019. For each appearance we recorded aspects of primate portrayals based on accuracy, anthropomorphism, environment, and agency displayed, along with the depiction medium. We used structural equation models to depict the highest likelihood of the portrayal aspects on the medium’s relationship to the films gross profit worldwide and film critic consensus scores. We found that over the 20-year time frame, use of live primates has decreased, CGI has increased, and animations have remained relatively steady. While animation had no significant relationship to gross profit or critic consensus, both were significantly lower for films that used live primates and were significantly higher for films that used CGI primates. Due to the steady increase in the use of the CGI medium and its positive relationship with gross profit and critic consensus, it could have great effects on people’s perceptions of primates and implications for conservation efforts.

1.  Trade of wildlife for use in traditional medicines, rituals, magical spells and cul-tural practices occurs globally and has been studied mostly in Africa and Asia.

2.  The grey slender loris Loris  lydekkerianus is used for both medicinal and ritual purposes, but little information is available on how the user is meant to extract their medicinal properties, or the potential impact these practices have on the species' populations.

3.  From 2014– 2021, we used open- ended interviews with 293 informants in three slender loris range states in Southern India to collect qualitative information on peo-ple's beliefs regarding the use of slender lorises in traditional medicine, black magic rituals and other cultural practices. To understand this further, we analysed data on 139 live slender loris rescues from three rescue and rehabilitation centres and one government organization in Bengaluru, India collected over an 18- year period.

4.  We found that 116/139 live individuals had been involved in black magic rituals, including piercing, or burning the body and the eyes. These ritual practices occurred more often to female slender lorises and during the new moon. Data from 293 inter-views revealed that astrologers regularly use live lorises for fortune- telling or for ward-ing off evil. Slender loris body parts are used to make traditional folk medicine, develop black magic potions that bring people harm, hypnotize people or to thwart evil.

5.  Habitat loss and anthropogenic pressures, coupled with the existing slender loris trade for cultural practices, are a cause for grave concern. Numerous deep- rooted superstitious beliefs and rituals continue to thrive in modern India, and this is potentially one of the major threats to India's already imperilled slender loris population. More research into the prevalence of loris use for black magic is needed to assess the impact on species sustainability.

Complex agroforestry systems are suggested as a possible solution to reduce the effects of deforestation in the tropics while enhancing the livelihoods of local human populations. Coffee (Coffea spp.) is one of the most important commodity crops in the world that can easily be cultivated in complex agroforestry systems. Coffee agroforestry systems usually sustain higher biodiversity levels than sun-exposed fields while keeping similar levels of productivity considering the several benefits of growing coffee under a complex system. We aim to explore the richness and abundance of invertebrates in coffee home gardens in West Java, Indonesia by comparing 14 sun-exposed and 14 shade-grown gardens. We collected data in March/April 2019 via pitfall traps, pan traps, and beating tray in each field. We ran generalised linear models to assess whether the number of species and the number of individuals of insects differed between sun-exposed vs. shade-grown coffee gardens, and tested associations between main taxa. Overall, there was no difference in the richness (sun-exposed: 19.86 ± SE1.19; shade-grown: 19.71 ± SE1.19; Z-value = 0.12, p value = 0.904) and abundance (sun-exposed: 141.93 ± SE 3.18; shade-grown: 139.93 ± SE3.16; Z-value = 0.35, p value = 0.706) of invertebrates in coffee gardens, although taxa specific differences were present. Sun-exposed fields had a higher abundance of invertebrates considered as pests (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae, Ectobiidae; Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Lycidae and Tenebrionidae; Diptera: Anisolabididae, Drosophilidae and Sarcophagidae). Camponotus spp. were the most dominant ants in shade-grown gardens while Dolichoderus spp. and Myrmicaria spp. were more abundant in sun-exposed gardens. Despite the fact that sun-exposed coffee fields registered higher abundance of invertebrate pests than shade-grown coffee fields, the richness of invertebrates did not substantially vary between sun-exposed and shade-grown coffee, suggesting that the matrix of gardens offers advanced ecosystem services. It is important to keep the complexity of agroforestry systems that provide key habitats for biodiversity.

Non-formal, yet educative, activities such as science festivals can positively influence the public regarding their attitude towards Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) subjects and students’ willingness to pursue STEM-related careers. We evaluate the changes made to adapt the Oxford Brookes Science Bazaar, a science festival that has been delivered face-to-face since 2008, to a virtual format in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The online festival included 28 pre-recorded and 12 live activities of different types (hands-on, demonstration, games, lectures, podcasts, virtual tours). Hands-on activities and virtual tours had the highest number of unique viewers, while lectures and podcasts were the least watched. The videos were watched also after the advertised date of the festival and reached a broader audience than the physical events. The number of participants, the holding time, and the proportion of people who filled the feedback forms, however, were lower in the online than the physical events. STEM organisations should consider hybrid events, with both virtual and in-person contents, to reach a broader audience and to create more inclusive events. We provide recommendations on how to maximise the benefit of virtual formats, including expanding blended virtual activities to reach a wider variety of age groups.

The  Javan  slow  loris  (Nycticebus  javanicus)  is  a  nocturnal  primate  endemic  to  Java. Previous studies on slow loris activity are limited to general daily activity, and there is  a  lack  of  research  on  the  potential  sex  differences  in  slow  loris  activity.  This study aims to analyze differences in the daily activity of the Javan slow loris based on  sex. From  August to December  2018, the daily activity of six wild Javan slow lorises was recorded using behavioral observations with instantaneous point sam-pling at 5-minute intervals. Differences in male and female slow loris activity were analyzed  using  the  Generalized  Linear  Mixed  Model  (GLMM).  We  set  sex  and weather as fixed factors and individuals as random effects. The results of this study showed that females spent more time feeding and less time resting than males. In addition, the Javan slow loris behavior was affected by temperature and humidity like other slow loris species.

It is challenging to disentangle the legal and illegal aspects of wild-caught animals that are traded in wildlife markets or online, and this may diminish the value of conducting wildlife trade surveys. We present empirical studies on the trade in birds (ducks, owls, songbirds, non-passerines) in Indonesia (2005 to 2021). Based on visits to wildlife markets, wholesale traders, and monitoring of an Instagram account, we examine if five specific pieces of legislation (domestic and international) are adhered to: (1) protected species, (2) harvest quota, (3) welfare, (4) provincial transport restrictions, and (5) illegal import of CITES-listed species. Our five distinctly different case studies showed that in each case, certain rules and regulations were adhered to, whilst others were violated to varying degrees. When trade involved non-protected species, there was frequently a lack of harvest quotas or trade occurred above these allocated quotas. Basic welfare provisions were regularly and habitually violated. Visiting wildlife markets and recording first-hand what is openly offered for sale is a highly reliable, verifiable, and valuable method of data collection that can give insight in numerous aspects of the animal trade. Our research provides support for recognising the urgency for the government to take appropriate action to curb all the illegal aspects of the bird trade in Indonesia.

Pollination services, from both wild and managed populations of insect pollinators, have degraded as a result of agricultural intensification. Whilst 75% of economically important crops depend on insect pollinators for cultivation, 40% of insect pollinator species are threatened with extinction. Pollination services must be preserved if there is to be enough food for a global population whose demand is expected to double, if not triple, by 2050. Pollinator diversity and pollinator efficiency have been found to increase as a result of wildlife-friendly farming practices (i.e., natural chemicals and fertilizers and agroforestry). We evaluated the presence of insect pollinators in 42 coffee home gardens in West Java, Indonesia. Via generalized linear mixed models, we found that number of visitor species (β = 0.418 ± SE 0.194, p = 0.031) and visitation time (β = 0.845 ± SE 0.308, p = 0.006) decreased as farms were more intensely managed, (i.e., used chemical pesticides), compared to fields using organic practices. As knowledge of pollination services is widespread amongst smallholder farmers in Indonesia and beyond due to the long-held tradition of beekeeping, these results will add to their existing knowledge and empower farmers to enhance resources for pollinator species through agroforestry and natural pest management. Although we found significant differences in pollination services provided in intensely managed and wildlife-friendly farms, chemical use can affect farms far beyond a particular area of production. Therefore, pollinator conservation must be applied at a landscape level and involve all stakeholders, including farmers, when making effective policies.

Accelerometers offer unique opportunities to study the behaviour of cryptic animals but require validation to show their accuracy in identifying behaviours. This validation is often undertaken in captivity before use in the wild. While zoos provide important opportunities for trial field techniques, they must consider the welfare and health of the individuals in their care and researchers must opt for the least invasive techniques. We used positive reinforcement training to attach and detach a collar with an accelerometer to an individual Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) at the Shaldon Wildlife Trust, U.K. This allowed us to collect accelerometer data at different periods between January–June 2020 and January–February 2021, totalling 42 h of data with corresponding video for validation. Of these data, we selected 54 min where ten behaviours were present and ran a random forest model. We needed 39 15-min sessions to train the animal to wear/remove the collar. The accelerometer data had an accuracy of 80.7 ± SD 9.9% in predicting the behaviours, with 99.8% accuracy in predicting resting, and a lower accuracy (but still >75% for all of them apart from suspensory walk) for the different types of locomotion and feeding behaviours. This training and validation technique can be used in similar species and shows the importance of working with zoos for in situ conservation (e.g., validation of field techniques).

The wildlife trade has facilitated the introduction of invasive non-native species, which may compete with native species for resources and alter ecosystems. Some of these species have great potential to become invasive if released or escaped from captivity. Here we studied the pet trade in a group of open countryside birds, the mynas (Acridotheres spp.) in Indonesia, and identified the areas that are at high risk of facing the establishment of these species. Mynas are among the most invasive birds in Southeast Asia. Once established in a new area, they are almost impossible to eradicate and can have strong negative impacts on the ecosystem. Preventing their introduction is therefore essential. Yet, invasive non-native mynas continue to be traded openly. We present data on the trade in seven species of mynas on Java, Bali and Lombok, with three species being native to parts of one or two of these islands, but not to the remainder, and four that are non-native to the region. From 2016 to 2021 we conducted 255 surveys of 30 animal markets. We recorded over 6000 mynas that were offered for sale outside their native range. Areas most at risk because of their high prevalence in specific animal markets, are Greater Jakarta, eastern Java, Bali and Lombok. The number of invasive non-native mynas recorded was positively related to the size of the animal market. Indonesia is signatory to several international agreements (CBD, ASEAN) that have policies and guidelines to prevent the introduction of invasive non-native species, but compliancy is weak. Annually hundreds and possibly thousands of invasive non-native mynas are released by Indonesian conservation authorities in regions that are outside their native range. Effective management of, and regulation of trade in, potential invasive non-native birds in Indonesia falls short and inadvertently greatly aids both their introduction and establishment.

Natural and artificial canopy bridges can be used to mitigate the effects of habitat fragmentation. Understanding the ecological factors that influence bridge use is imperative to the effective design and placement of this potential conservation intervention. Moonlight, seasonality and weather may influence the cost and risk of using bridges, potentially reducing their effectiveness. We installed five artificial waterline bridges and, between 2017 and 2019, monitored via camera trapping their use by Javan palm civets Paradoxurus musanga javanicus and Javan slow lorises Nycticebus javanicus. We used a weather station to record microclimate data (temperature and relative humidity) and calculated the illumination percentage of the moon. We tested the influence of moon luminosity, relative humidity, seasonality (Julian day) and temperature on the frequency of bridge use via Generalised Additive Models. Camera traps captured 938 instances of bridge use by civets, which was significantly lower than the reference value at moon luminosity > 90%, temperatures > 20 °C, humidity > 90%, and during the drier period (May–July). Camera traps captured 1036 instances of bridge use by lorises, which was significantly lower than the reference value during the drier period and higher than the reference value at temperatures > 20 °C. Lorises showed peaks in bridge use close to sunset and sunrise whereas civets showed peaks around 2 h after sunset and 2 h before sunrise. Our study illustrates the utility of simple-to-construct bridges by two sympatric nocturnal mammals facing severe habitat loss, with bridge use differing between those species according to abiotic factors. In particular, less use by both taxa during the drier season could suggest modifying placement of bridges or providing another intervention during that time. Camera traps were an excellent mechanism to record these differences and to validate the importance of the bridges, including during inclement weather and dark nights, when observations would be more difficult for human observers. By understanding the influence that abiotic factors have on the use of artificial bridges, we can improve bridge placement and construction to encourage use by a variety of species, particularly those threatened by habitat fragmentation.

Complex agroforestry systems can host similar biodiversity levels to adjacent continuous forests and can offer important ecosystem services for wildlife. Species inhabiting adjacent forests, as well as species that prefer agroforestry systems, can benefit from this habitat matrix. It is necessary, however, to understand the species-specific adaptability to such a complex matrix. Indonesia is a biodiversity hotspot and hosts many endemic species that are threatened with extinction. Its human population relies heavily on agriculture, meaning that finding a balance between crop productivity and biodiversity is key for the long-term sustainability of local communities and wildlife. We aim to determine the influence of the presence of shade trees and distance to the forest on the detection rates of wildlife in coffee home gardens. In West Java, Indonesia, we monitored 23 gardens between April 2018 and March 2021 via camera traps, totalling 3856 days of monitoring in shade-grown and 3338 days in sun-exposed gardens. We also collected data in the nearby montane rainforest, totalling 1183 days of monitoring. We used Generalized Additive Models to estimate the influence of shade cover and distance to the forest on the detection rates of wildlife. The Sunda leopard cat Prionailurus javanensis was found more frequently in shade-grown gardens and used both the forest and agroforest matrix. Wild boars Sus scrofa mostly occurred in gardens adjacent to the forest, while barred buttonquails Turnix suscitator were associated with gardens far (>1 km) from the forest. Several species (civets Viverricula indica and Paradoxus musangus javanicus, Horsfield’s treeshrew Tupaia javanica, Javan ferret badger Melogale orientalis, Javan mongoose Herpestes javanicus) were not influenced by shade cover and distance to the forest, suggesting they are well adapted to the agroforestry system. Still, species of high conservation importance, such as Javan leopard Panthera pardus melas, Sunda porcupine Hystrix javanica, and grizzled langur Presbytis comata, were present in the forest but not in the agroforest, suggesting that the replacement of the forest by the agroforestry matrix is still detrimental. Nevertheless, it is important to maintain the complexity of the agroforestry system and connectivity with the neighbouring continuous forest to favour the long-term sustainability of this environment and the conservation of endemic species.

In mammals, colouration patterns are often related to concealment, intraspecific communication, including aposematic signals, and physiological adaptations. Slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) are arboreal primates native to Southeast Asia that display stark colour contrast, are highly territorial, regularly enter torpor, and are notably one of only seven mammal taxa that possess venom. All slow loris species display a contrasting stripe that runs cranial-caudally along the median sagittal plane of the dorsum. We examine whether these dorsal markings facilitate background matching, seasonal adaptations, and intraspecific signaling. We analyzed 195 images of the dorsal region of 60 Javan slow loris individuals (Nycticebus javanicus) from Java, Indonesia. We extracted greyscale RGB values from dorsal pelage using ImageJ software and calculated contrast ratios between dorsal stripe and adjacent pelage in eight regions. We assessed through generalized linear mixed models if the contrast ratio varied with sex, age, and seasonality. We also examined whether higher contrast was related to more aggressive behavior or increased terrestrial movement. We found that the dorsal stripe of N. javanicus changed seasonally, being longer and more contrasting in the wet season, during which time lorises significantly increased their ground use. Stripes were most contrasting in younger individuals of dispersal age that were also the most aggressive during capture. The dorsal stripe became less contrasting as a loris aged. A longer stripe when ground use is more frequent can be related to disruptive colouration. A darker anterior region by younger lorises with less fighting experience may allow them to appear larger and fiercer. We provide evidence that the dorsum of a cryptic species can have multimodal signals related to concealment, intraspecific communication, and physiological adaptations.

Providing a natural diet is a key component to improving animal welfare and potentially reducing stereotypic behaviours in captivity. Wild slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) are threatened by illegal wildlife trade, and in Thailand, confiscations from trade have led to a large number of Bengal (Nycticebus bengalensis) and greater slow lorises (N. coucang) in rescue centers such as Bang Phra Wildlife Domestic Research Station (Bang Phra). Due to limited enclosure space and availability of natural food items, welfare may be compromised for these confiscated animals. Slow lorises in most rescue centres including Bang Phra are mainly fed with fruit and vegetables rather than their natural diet of exudates, nectar and insects. Our project aimed to increase wild-type activities and reduce stereotypic behaviours in captive slow lorises at Bang Phra by modifying the diet (especially adding exudates of gum Arabic) using environmental enrichment devices. From May to August 2019, we implemented four diet conditions on 30 individuals: baseline, gum presented in two feeding devices and insects presented in a box. Diet conditions changed individual behaviours, with more time spent feeding and foraging, less time spent resting, and less stereotypic behaviours. Fixed gum was the most successful device to encourage increased feeding (40.4 % vs ∼ 3.5 % during baseline conditions) and foraging (16.3 % vs ∼2.5 % during baseline conditions), whilst significantly decreasing stereotypic behaviours (3.2 % vs ∼16.5 % during baseline conditions). Animals with small body sizes are often placed in small cages in rescue centres despite their needs in the wild. At the same time, species with specialist diets may not thrive in rescue centres that lack the funds or infrastructure to procure food items perceived to be specialised. With wild numbers declining rapidly, rescue centres must provide adequate space and wild type diets to ensure the health and well-being of these globally threatened primates.

Traditional socio-ecological models consider that folivorous primates experience limited feeding competition due to the low quality, high abundance, and even distribution of leaves. Evidence from several folivorous species that experience similar constraints to frugivores does not support this hypothesis. The sympatric lemur genera Avahi (Indriidae) and Lepilemur (Lepilemuridae) are good models to understand how food availability constrains folivores since they are both nocturnal, folivorous, and have a comparable body mass. Here we investigate how two nocturnal folivorous primates, Avahi meridionalis and Lepilemur fleuretae, living in the lowland rain forest of Tsitongambarika, South-East Madagascar, partition their dietary niche and are influenced by seasonality of young leaves. To account for food availability, we collected annual phenological data on 769 trees from 200 species. We also collected behavioural data on 5 individuals per lemur species from August 2015 to July 2016 via continuous focal sampling. We found the phenological profile to be seasonal with peaks of leaf flushing, flowering, and fruiting occurring in the austral summer. The two species showed limited dietary overlap (37% rich period, 6% lean period), and A. meridionalis showed higher feeding time and longer daily distances travelled during the rich  period. L. fleuretae showed a dietary shift during the lean period, relying more on mature leaves (73.3% during the lean period, 13.5% during the rich period) but maintaining similar activity levels between seasons. The time spent feeding on food items by A. meridionalis was positively correlated with the nitrogen content and negatively correlated with polyphenols in food items during the rich period. We highlighted a clear effect of the seasonality of young leaves on the diet, nutritional content, activity patterns, and daily distances travelled by two folivorous species, which can be linked to nutrient balancing and time-minimising versus energy-maximising strategies.

Agroforestry systems have been recognised as a possible refuge for biodiversity especially when bordering intact landscapes. The intensification of crop management to increase yields is usually associated with a reduction of shade trees and heavy use of chemicals, typically correlated with a decrease in biodiversity. The relationship between intensity of crop management and biodiversity, however, is not clear-cut and is dependent on environmental and geographical differences. We assessed the influence of different shade cover, shade tree richness, richness of other crops, distance from the forest, and use of chemicals on the diversity, richness and abundance of butterflies, a bioindicator in coffee home gardens. We collected data in 42 coffee home gardens in West Java, Indonesia, via Pollard transects, totalling 15.1 km (July-August 2019 and July-August 2020). We found 54 species of butterflies in the gardens. Via Generalised Additive Mixed Models, we found that the use of chemicals negatively influenced the abundance (p = 0.001) and richness (p = 0.039) of butterflies, while shade tree richness positively influenced the abundance (p

Indonesia is at the epicenter of the Asian Songbird Crisis, i.e., the recognition that the cage bird trade has a devastating impact on numerous imperiled bird species in Asia. The Javan pied starling Gracupica jalla, only in the last five years recognized as distinct from the pied starlings of mainland Southeast Asia, has been declared extinct the wild in 2021. Up until the 1980s, it used to be one of the most common open countryside birds on the islands of Java and Bali, Indonesia. From the early 2000s onwards, the species is commercially bred to meet the demand from the domestic cagebird trade. We conducted 280 market surveys in 25 bird markets in Java and Bali between April 2014 and March 2020, with 15 markets being surveyed at least six times. We recorded 24,358 Javan pied starlings, making it one of the most commonly observed birds in the markets. We established that, conservatively, around 40% of the birds in the market were sold within one week and used this to estimate that at a minimum ~80,000 Javan pied starlings are sold in the bird markets on Java and Bali. The latter represents a monetary value of USD5.2 million. We showed that prices were low in the 1980s, when all birds were sourced from the wild. It became more varied and differentiated in the 2000s when a combination of now expensive wild-caught and cheaper captive-bred birds were offered for sale, and prices stabilized in the 2010s when most, if not all birds were commercially captive-bred. Javan pied starlings are not protected under Indonesian law, and there are no linked-up conservation efforts in place to re-establish a wild population on the islands, although small-scale releases do take place.

Apes continue to be trafficked to meet the demand for pets or zoos. Indonesia, the most diverse country in terms of ape species, has been implicated in the global trade in gibbons, orangutans and, to a lesser degree, chimpanzees. Recently trade has shifted to online platforms, a trend that may have been amplified by the Covid-19 pandemic and partial lockdowns. We assessed the availability of legally protected apes for sale on Facebook and Instagram over two 16-months periods (2017–2018 and 2020–2021). Despite Facebook and Instagram explicitly banning the sale of endangered animals, and Facebook not allowing the sale of live animals, we found 106 gibbons, 17 orangutans and four chimpanzees for sale on five Facebook pages and 19 Instagram accounts. All orangutans and chimpanzees and 70% of the gibbons were infants or juveniles. We did not record any obvious responses of vendors to the Covid-19 pandemic. Facebook and Instagram accounts were linked (similar names, cross-referencing each other and announcing new accounts on existing ones), names were altered (e.g., “petshop” to “pethsop”) and new vendors emerged for short periods. Facebook and Instagram’s policy of not allowing the sale of live and/or endangered wildlife on their platforms is not effectively implemented in Indonesia.

Immature mammals require opportunities to develop skills that will affect their competitive abilities and reproductive success as adults. One way these benefits may be achieved is through play behavior. While skills in developing use of tusks, antlers, and other weapons mammals have been linked to play, play in venomous animals has rarely been studied. Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) use venom to aid in intraspecific competition, yet whether individuals use any behavioral mechanisms to develop the ability to use venom remains unclear. From April 2012 to December 2020, we recorded 663 play events and studied the factors influencing the frequency of play and the postures used during play in wild Javan slow lorises. Regardless of the presence of siblings, two thirds of play partners of young slow lorises were older and more experienced adults. Young lorises engaged in riskier behaviors during play, including using more strenuous postures and playing more in riskier conditions with increased rain and moonlight. We found that play patterns in immature lorises bear resemblance to venom postures used by adults. We suggest that play functions to train immature lorises to deal with future unexpected events, such as random attacks, as seen in other mammalian taxa with weapons. Given the importance of venom use for highly territorial slow lorises throughout their adult lives and the similarities between venom and play postures, we cannot rule out the possibility that play also prepares animals for future venomous fights. We provide here a baseline for the further exploration of the development of this unique behavior in one of the few venomous mammals.

China plays a critical role in global biodiversity conservation, as both a biodiversity hotspot and for its role in international and domestic animal trade. Efforts to promote wildlife conservation have sparked interest in the attitudes held by Chinese citizens towards animals. Using a questionnaire, we sought to investigate the attitudes of 317 Chinese nationals across provincial-level administrative units regarding their uses of animals, their perceived emotional capacities and views on exotic pets. We reduced the variables related to perceived uses of animals via Principal Component Analysis and ran Generalised Linear Models and Structural Equation Modelling to test relationships between questionnaire-derived variables. Perceptions of animals were divided into two Kellert categories — Utilitarian and Humanistic uses — and 97% of participants believed in animals’ capacities to have and express emotions. We found few interactions, with exotic pets, ie playing with or taking photographs, but the acceptability of owning an exotic pet influenced the likelihood of purchasing one. A belief that animals express emotions encouraged people to look for them as pets but thinking that pets make people happy made exotic pet ownership less acceptable. The shift in attitudes to include humanistic perceptions of animals, a belief in animals as emotive beings and understanding of terminology changed from the previous utilitarian views of pre-reform China, suggesting a readiness to embrace further conservation efforts in China. This deeper understanding of Chinese attitudes towards animals and drivers of the exotic pet trade within China may enable conservation efforts to better target future campaigns.

1. Mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei trekking is a substantial source of revenue for the conservation of this threatened primate and its habitat. Trekking, however, may pose a threat of human-to-gorilla disease transmission that could have disastrous effects on wild gorillas.

2. We used 858 photographs posted on Instagram in 2013–2019 to analyse the proximity of tourists visiting mountain gorillas in the wild. We classified photographs of the encounters according to the distance between the closest gorilla and human, the age class of the gorilla, the trekking location and presence of a surgical face mask on the tourist. We ran a generalised linear mixed model to test whether these variables influenced the distance between the human and the wild gorillas in the photographs, and to test whether these distances have changed over time.

3. Most sampled photographs (86%) showed tourists within a critical 4 m of the gorillas, with 25 incidents of physical contact between a tourist and a gorilla, and only 3% at the recommended distance of 7 m or more. We only were able to record face mask use in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where these were present in 65% of uploaded photos.

4. Tourists and immature gorillas tended to get closer to each other than tourists and adult gorillas, and this is more pronounced in female tourists than male tourists. The mean distance between human and wild gorillas decreased by ~1 m between 2013 and 2019.

5. The results indicate that existing rules are not enforced and raise attention to this unsustainable aspect of mountain gorilla trekking as it is practiced today. These ever-growing tourist attractions in the range countries pose risks of disease transmission in both directions between tourists and wildlife. The popularity of photograph-based social media may stimulate closer contacts and influence people into risky behaviours.

6. We advocate the establishment and reinforcement of regulations relating to the distance between animals and tourists in any in situ wildlife ecotourism context,as well as campaigns to raise awareness regarding the risks of anthroponosis, and fines applied in case of non-compliance.

There is an urgent need for a global transition to sustainable and wildlife-friendly farming systems that provide social and economic equity and protect ecosystem services on which agriculture depends. Java is home to 60% of Indonesia’s population and harbors many endemic species; thus, managing agriculture alongside human well-being and biodiversity is vital. Within a community of ~400 coffee farmers in the province of West Java, we assessed the steps to develop a wildlife-friendly program until reaching certification between February 2019 and October 2020. We adopted an adaptive management approach that included developing common objectives through a process of stakeholder consultation and co-learning. We firstly investigated via interviews the expectations and the issues encountered by 25 farmers who converted to organic production in 2016. Their main expectations were an increase in income and an increase in coffee quality, while they had issues mainly in finding high quality fertilizers, reducing pests, and increasing productivity. We used this information to establish a problem-solving plan for the transition to community-wide wildlife-friendly practices. As part of the adaptive evaluation, we assessed the quality of coffee plantations before and after the implementation of coproduced actions. The quality of coffee significantly improved after our interventions to reduce the coffee berry borer, especially in the fields that started as inorganic and converted to organic. We uncovered additional issues to meet the standards for certification, including banning hunting and trapping activities and increasing coffee quality for international export. We describe the coproduced actions (agroforestry, conservation education, local law, organic alternatives) and phases of the program and discuss the potential barriers. We provide novel evidence of adaptive management framework successfully used to implement management actions and reach shared goals.

A long developmental period in animals is often needed to learn skills for adult reproduction and survival, including feeding behaviour. The nocturnal Javan slow loris, Nycticebus javanicus, is unusual in that it consumes a specialized diet of difficult to extract resources, as well as disperses up to a year after sexual maturity. Here, we examined the ontogeny of its feeding behaviour to understand whether learning to feed on difficult resources, including by co-feeding, is related to delayed dispersal. We collected feeding and proximity data on developing and adult wild slow lorises at a long-term field site in Cipaganti, West Java from 2012 to 2018. To determine whether acquisition of insects, exudates, nectar and flowers varied by age, we ran logistic generalized additive mixed models. We found that intake of insects and exudates occurred significantly more in the early stages, and feeding on nectar significantly more in the later stages, of development. Co feeding occurred for all food types, with insects showing the most co-feeding events during early development, and co-feeding on exudates remaining high throughout development. Social learning via co-feeding is a potentially important factor in transmission of dietary information from older individuals, including siblings and parents, to young slow lorises. Differences between immature and adult diets levelled off after sexual maturity and before average dispersal. Together these factors suggest that the period required to learn to forage on difficult items could help explain the delayed dispersal patterns seen in mammals with similar foraging strategies.

Wildlife trade has been widely discussed as a likely origin of the COVID-19 pandemic. It remains unclear how the main actors in the wildlife trade chain responded to these discussions and to the campaigns advocating wildlife trade bans. We analyzed the content of ~20,000 posts on 41 Facebook groups devoted to wild pet trade and ran a breakpoint and a content analysis to assess when and how the COVID-19 pandemic was incorporated into the discourse within trade communities. Only 0.44% of advertisements mentioned COVID-19, mostly after WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic. No traders discussed the role of trade in spreading diseases; instead, posts stimulated the trade in wild species during lockdown. COVID-19 potentially offers persuasive arguments for reducing wildlife trade and consumption. This effect was not demonstrated by on-the-ground actors involved in this market. Bans in wildlife trade will not be sufficient and additional strategies are clearly needed.  

Animals have evolved an array of spectacular weapons, including antlers, forceps, proboscises, stingers, tusks and horns [ 1 ]. Weapons can be present in males and females of species needing to defend critical limiting resources, including food (rhinoceros beetles, Trypoxylus) and territories (fang blennies, Meiacanthus) [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Chemicals, including sprays, ointments and injected venoms, are another defence system used by animals. As with morphological weapons, venom can serve multiple purposes, including to facilitate feeding, in predation, and in defence when attacked [ 4 ]. Although rare, several taxa use venom for agonistic intraspecific competition (e.g. ghost shrimp, Caprella spp.; sea anemones, Actinia equina; cone snails, Conidae; male platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus) [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Another group of venomous mammals are the nocturnal slow lorises ( Nycticebus) [ 7 ]. Slow loris bites often result in dramatic diagnostic wounds characterised by necrotic gashes to the head and extremities. Although these bites are the major cause of death of lorises in captivity, the function of this aggressive behaviour has never been studied in the wild [ 7 ]. Here, through an 8-year study of wounding patterns, territorial behaviour, and agonistic encounters of a wild population of Javan slow lorises ( Nycticebus javanicus), we provide strong evidence that venom is used differentially by both sexes to defend territories and mates.

Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity, particularly within tropical forest habitats. Some of the fastest diminishing tropical forest habitats in the world occur in Indonesia, where fragmentation is severely impacting biodiversity, including on the island of Java, which holds many endemic species. Extreme fragmentation on the western part of the island, especially due to small-scale agriculture, impacts animal movement and increases mortality risk for mainly arboreal taxa. To mitigate this risk in an agroforest environment in Garut District, West Java, we installed 10 canopy bridges and monitored them through camera trapping between 2017 and 2019. Five of the monitored bridges were made of waterlines and five of rubber hose. We recorded Javan palm civets using the waterline bridges 938 times, while Javan slow lorises used the waterlines 1079 times and the rubber bridges 358 times. At least 19 other species used the bridges for crossing or perching. Our results demonstrate that relatively simple and cost-effective materials can be used to mitigate the effects of habitat fragmentation. We also recommend the use of camera traps to monitor the effectiveness of these interventions.

Understanding the repertoire of hunting techniques used by traditional peoples in tropical forests is crucial for recognizing the role of traditional knowledge in hunting activities, as well as assessing the impact of harvests on game species. We describe the hunting techniques used across Amazonia by Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples for hunting yellow-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis denticulatus), one of the most consumed species in the biome. We interviewed 178 local people in 25 communities living in seven study areas in the Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon. We used a Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) and Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM) to compare the hunting techniques between ethnic groups and the ages of the interviewees. Four different techniques were reported: (1) trapping with bait (46%; n = 122); (2) hunting with dogs (35%; n = 92); (3) active searching (14 %; n = 37); and (4) visiting fruiting trees (5%; n = 14). Trapping with bait was alleged to be the most cost-effective technique by 67% of the interviewees. Among the baits used, 93% involved the use of wild species as rotten meat. Hunting with dogs was also frequently cited and involved eight different methods of training. The hunting techniques recorded were not significantly different among ethnic groups or generations. The consonance among the technique repertoire likely reflects a shared knowledge still in use across different cultural groups. There is a potential for applying the hunting techniques to large scale community-based monitoring and management programs, but the impact on additional species affected, such as species intentionally captured to be used as bait, should be considered. Local assessments and community-based management plans that incorporate traditional ecological knowledge are recommended to guarantee the maintenance of livelihoods and ensure the species' conservation in Amazonia.

Seizures of hundreds of jaguar heads and canines in Central and South America from 2014 to 2018 resulted in worldwide media coverage suggesting that wildlife traffickers are trading jaguar body parts as substitutes for tiger parts to satisfy the demand for traditional Asian medicine. We compiled a data set of >1000 seized wild cats (jaguar [Panthera onca], puma [Puma concolor], and ocelot [Leopardus pardalis]) from 19 Central and South American countries and China. We ran generalized additive mixed models to detect trends in wild-cat seizures from 2012 to 2018 and assess the effects of socioeconomic factors of source countries and between those countries and China on the number of wild cats seized. Jaguar seizures increased over time, and most of the seized jaguar pieces were canines (1991 of 2117). Around 34% (32 of 93) of the jaguar-part seizure reports were linked with China, and these seizures contained 14-fold more individuals than those intended for domestic markets. Source countries with relatively high levels of corruption and Chinese private investment and low income per capita had 10-50 times more jaguar seizures than the remaining sampled countries. The number of Chinese residents in Central and South America was not significantly related to the number of jaguars seized. No socioeconomic factors influenced the seizures of puma and ocelots. Legal market chains may provide structure for the illegal chain; thus, the influx of illegal jaguar products is potentially a side effect of the economic partnership between Central and South American countries and China. Poverty and high levels of corruption in the source countries may motivate local people to engage in illegal activities and contribute to the growth of this trade. Supply-side interventions to curb this threat to Neotropical wild cats may include improved training for officials and promotion of governance and the value of protecting these animals to local people.

Slow lorises are enigmatic animal that represent the only venomous primate lineage. Their defensive secretions have received little attention. In this study we determined the full length sequence of the protein secreted by their unique brachial glands. The full length sequences displayed homology to the main allergenic protein present in cat dander. We thus compared the molecular features of the slow loris brachial gland protein and the cat dander allergen protein, showing remarkable similarities between them. Thus we postulate that allergenic proteins play a role in the slow loris defensive arsenal. These results shed light on these neglected, novel animals.

Unmonitored release is a common practice, especially in small animals, that present a series of adverse conditions if not well-planned. Small research centers and non-governmental organizations in developing countries often receive animals that are then subject to unmonitored releases. We explored the patterns of post-release and natal dispersal in the Javan slow loris, a Critically Endangered venomous and territorial mammal that is highly threatened by wildlife trade. We then determined the importance of health status and human habituation for the survival of translocated and natally dispersing animals. We collected data from 2012 to 2018 on pre-release and pre-dispersal health conditions and human habituation, post-release and post-dispersal presence of wounds, behavior, and ranging patterns of 11 translocated and 11 natally dispersing individuals and compared them with 12 stable resident individuals. Translocated animals had a larger home range size (15.9 ± 4.1 ha) and higher wound presence during recaptures (0.47 ± 0.13) than stable resident individuals (3.2 ± 3.0 ha; 0.10 ± 0.06) but they did not differ from natally dispersing individuals (13.8 ± 3.7 ha; 0.28 ± 0.11). Both translocated and natally dispersing individuals can move to a different habitat type compared to their release area or natal range. The fate of both translocated and natally dispersing individuals was influenced by their health state (p

Creating and assessing relatively broad conservation education curricula is important when trying to reach a variety of students. We used a curriculum centred around a storybook in 12
schools in four separate areas of Indonesia, reaching 529 students. We visited each school twice,
and taught the ecology and importance of the target taxa, Indonesia’s seven threatened slow
loris species (Nycticebus spp.). Through cultural consensus analyses and structural equation modelling, we found that students from all regions showed improvements in knowledge, and that the distance from the forest to where children lived, teachers’ use of given education materials, and students’ use of the storybook all affected student performance in drawing and essay accuracy. Here we make suggestions for creating and evaluating multi-site environmental education programmes. We recommend creating curricula that are not inclusive of any particular community; providing teachers with materials to supplement a conservation
intervention; giving each child their own copy of any visual materials used in the lessons; following up with students and teachers about the use of such materials; and interviewing teachers and students regarding their experience with and attitudes towards the study subject. Furthermore we suggest practitioners share their materials and have confidence in adapting them for other species and locations.

1. Elevation gradients correlate with changes in several environmental conditions and are known to be related to animal abundance. Animals in regions with a naturally limited extent of lowland rainforest are expected to have evolved adaptations to intermediate elevations that provided a stable environment during their evolution.
2. Since the lowland rainforest of Madagascar has a limited extent and suffers from increasing anthropogenic pressure, it is essential to understand how well species tolerate intermediate and high elevations. In this study, we aim to quantify the relationship between lemur abundance and elevation in the eastern rainforest of Madagascar.
3. We correlated abundance data on 26 lemur species (10 genera), including 492 records from 26 studies, with elevation. We analysed the consistency of correlations across species with a meta‐analytical approach. We controlled for species’ body mass, elevational range and median elevation. We then ran generalised linear mixed models to determine whether lemur abundance was related to elevation, body mass, plant productivity and anthropogenic disturbance.
4. Overall, the abundance of lemur species in Malagasy rainforests was negatively correlated with elevation, and species occupying broader elevational ranges showed stronger correlations. Body mass was not related to species’ tolerance of high elevations. Even though several lemur species are able to occupy the entire elevation gradient, the few remaining patches of lowland rainforests host lemur species at greater abundances than other sites. Abundance across species was negatively related to body mass, elevation and seasonality in plant productivity and positively related to plant productivity.
5. Despite the ecological flexibility of many lemur species, the remnant patches of lowland rainforests host the highest levels of lemur abundance and are key to lemur conservation. It is crucial to preserve this priority habitat both for biodiversity conservation and for our understanding of lemur adaptations.

Canopy bridges are increasingly used to reduce fragmentation in tropical habitats yet monitoring of their impact on the behavior of primates remains limited. The Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) is endemic to Java, Indonesia, where the species most often occurs in human-dominated, highly patchy landscapes. Slow lorises cannot leap, are highly arboreally adapted, and are vulnerable on the ground. To increase arboreal connectivity, as part of a long-term conservation project in Cipaganti, West Java, we built and monitored seven slow lorises bridges of two types – waterline or rubber – and monitored their use by seven adult individuals from 2016-2017. Motion triggered camera traps collected data for 195 ± SD 85 days on each bridge. We collected 341.76 hours (179.67 h before and 162.09 h after the installation of bridges) of behavioral and home range data via instantaneous sampling every 5-min, and terrestrial behavior (distance and duration of  time spent on the ground) via all occurrences sampling. We found that slow lorises used bridges on average 12.9 ± SD 9.7 days after their instalment mainly for travelling. Slow lorises showed a trend towards an increase in their home range size (2.57 ha before, 4.11 ha after; p=0.063) and reduced ground use (5.98 s/h before, 0.43 s/h; p=0.063) after implementation of bridges. Although the number of feeding trees did not change, new feeding trees were included in the home range, and the proportion of data points spent travelling and exploring significantly decreased (p=0.018). Waterline bridges serve a purpose to irrigate the crops of local farmers who thus help to maintain the bridges, and also ascribe value to the presence of slow lorises. Other endemic mammal species also used the bridges. We advocate the use and monitoring of artificial canopy bridges as an important supplement for habitat connectivity in conservation interventions.

Bespoke microsatellite marker panels are increasingly affordable and tractable to researchers and conservationists. The rate of microsatellite discovery is very high within a shotgun genomic data set, but extensive laboratory testing of markers is required for confirmation of amplification and polymorphism. By incorporating shotgun next‐generation sequencing data sets from multiple individuals of the same species, we have developed a new method for the optimal design of microsatellite markers. This new tool allows us to increase the rate at which suitable candidate markers are selected by 58% in direct comparisons and facilitate an estimated 16% reduction in costs associated with producing a novel microsatellite panel. Our method enables the visualisation of each microsatellite locus in a multiple sequence alignment allowing several important quality checks to be made. Polymorphic loci can be identified and prioritised. Loci containing fragment‐length‐altering mutations in the flanking regions, which may invalidate assumptions regarding the model of evolution underlying variation at the microsatellite, can be avoided. Priming regions containing point mutations can be detected and avoided, helping to reduce sample‐site‐marker specificity arising from genetic isolation, and the likelihood of null alleles occurring. We demonstrate the utility of this new approach in two species: an echinoderm and a bird. Our method makes a valuable contribution towards minimising genotyping errors and reducing costs associated with developing a novel marker panel. The Python script to perform our method of multi‐individual microsatellite identification (MiMi) is freely available from GitHub (https://github.com/graemefox/mimi).

Only a handful of primate taxa use ultrasonic vocalisations (those ≥20 kHz) to communicate. The extent and uses of ultrasonic communication remain poorly understood, potentially ranging from echolocation, advertisement of reproductive status and resource availability, social cohesion, to predator avoidance. Here, using active acoustics whereby the study subjects were observed throughout their activity period, we describe the first purely ultrasonic call from a strepsirrhine primate (family Lorisidae), recorded in a completely wild setting, and hypothesise about its function. We identified one type of ultrasonic call, the doublet click, from 14 Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) produced by males and females of juvenile, subadult and adult ages within their social groups (n = 791, mean = 46.0 kHz). We ran quadratic discriminant function analysis, finding dominant frequency and doublet click duration as the key parameters for identifying individuals’ sex and age. Significantly more vocalisations were produced during affiliative social behaviour, suggesting that the call serves a social cohesion function. Considering the range of other cryptic behaviours, including slow and silent locomotion, and the high degree of territoriality associated with venomous attacks on conspecifics, the call may also serve as a safety strategy, allowing family members to regulate distance from other slow lorises and to communicate cryptically whilst avoiding predators.

Among primates, the suborder Haplorhini is considered to have evolved a consolidated monophasic sleep pattern, with diurnal species requiring a shorter sleep duration than nocturnal species. Only a few primate species have been systematically studied in their natural habitat where environmental variables, including temperature and light, have a major influence on sleep and activity patterns. Here we report the first sleep study on a nocturnal primate performed in the wild. We fitted seven wild Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) in West Java, Indonesia with accelerometers that collected activity data, and installed climate loggers in each individual’s home range to collect ambient temperature readings (over 321 days in total). All individuals showed a strictly nocturnal pattern of activity and displayed a striking synchronisation of onset and cessation of activity in relation to sunset and sunrise. The longest consolidated rest episodes were typically clustered near the beginning and towards the end of the light period, and this pattern was inversely related to daily fluctuations of the ambient temperature. The striking relationship between daily activity patterns, light levels and temperature suggests a major role of the environment in shaping the daily architecture of waking and sleep. We concluded that well-known phenotypic variability in daily sleep amount and architecture across species may represent an adaptation to changes in the environment. Our data suggest that the consolidated monophasic sleep patterns shaped by environmental pressures observed in slow lorises represent phylogenetic inertia in the evolution of sleep patterns in humans.

The rise of palm oil as the world’s most consumed vegetable oil has coincided with exponential growth in palm oil research activity. Bibliometric analysis of research outputs reveals a distinct imbalance in the type of research being undertaken, notably a disproportionate focus on biofuel and engineering topics. Recognizing the expansion of oil palm agriculture across the tropics and the increasing awareness of environmental, social, and economic impacts, we seek to reorientate the existing research agenda toward one that addresses the most fundamental and urgent questions defined by the palm oil stakeholder community. Following consultation with 659 stakeholders from 38 countries, including palm oil growers, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and researchers, the highest priority research questions were identified within 13 themes. The resulting 279 questions, including 26 ranked as top priority, reveal a diversity of environmental and social research challenges facing the industry, ranging from the ecological and ecosystem impacts of production, to the livelihoods of plantation workers and smallholder communities. Analysis of the knowledge type produced from these questions underscores a clear need for fundamental science programmes, and studies that involve the consultation of non-academic stakeholders to develop “transformative” solutions to the oil palm sector. Stakeholders were most aligned in their choice of priority questions across the themes of policy and certification related themes, and differed the most in environmental feedback, technology and smallholder related themes. Our recommendations include improved regional academic leadership and coordination, greater engagement with private and public stakeholders in Africa, and Central and South America, and enhanced collaborative efforts with researchers in the major consuming countries of India and China.

Time is considered a resource in limited supply, and temporal niche separation is one of the most common strategies that allow ecologically similar species to live in sympatry. Mechanisms of temporal niche separation are understudied especially in cryptic animals due to logistical problems in gathering adequate data. Using high-frequency accelerometers attached to radio-collars, we investigated whether the ecologically similar lemurs Avahi meridionalis and Lepilemur fleuretae in the lowland rainforest of Tsitongambarika, south-eastern Madagascar, show temporal niche separation. Accelerometers stored data with a frequency of 1 Hz for a total of 71 days on three individuals of A. meridionalis and three individuals of L. fleuretae. We extrapolated motor activity patterns via the unsupervised learning algorithm expectation maximisation and validated the results with systematic behavioural observations. Avahi meridionalis showed peaks of activity at twilights with low but consistent activity during the day, while L. fleuretae exhibited more activity in the central hours of the night. Both lemur species had their activity pattern entrained by photoperiodic variations. The pair-living A. meridionalis was found to be lunarphilic while the solitary-living L. fleuretae was lunarphobic. We suggest that these activity differences were advantageous to minimise feeding competition, as an anti-predator strategy, and/or for dietary-related benefits. These findings demonstrate a fine-tuned temporal partitioning in sympatric, ecologically similar lemur species and support the idea that an activity spread over the 24-h, defined here as cathemerality sensu lato, is more common than previously thought in lemurs.

Significance statement

Ecologically similar species may exhibit temporal niche partitioning and separate their peaks of activity when co-occurring in an area. We show for the first time that the mainly nocturnal genus Avahi can exhibit high crepuscular activity with low but consistent bouts of activity (up to 44.6% of daily activity) during the day. We defined this activity as cathemerality sensu lato as opposed to the cathemerality sensu stricto observed in Eulemur sp. We suggest that this flexible activity may be advantageous for the species to minimise feeding competition and predatory pressure, and/or to provide dietary-related benefits. This finding in the secondary nocturnal genus Avahi supports the idea that activity patterns in lemurs are graded and traditional categorisations are inadequate.

Environment and diet are key factors which shape the microbiome of organisms. There is also a disparity between captive and wild animals of the same species, presumably because of the change in diet. Being able to reverse the microbiome to the wild type is thus particularly important for the reintroduction efforts of Critically Endangered animals. The Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) is a suitable model, being kept in the thousands within rescue centres throughout Southeast Asia. With next-generation sequencing, we show how a naturalistic diet impacts the gut microbiome of captive slow lorises (Primates: Nycticebus). A comparison of the microbiome of wild animals with captive animals that had been fed a standard captive or improved diet reveals strong microbiome differences between wild and captive animals; however, diet changes failed to alter the microbiome of captive populations significantly. Bifidobacterium was the most abundant genus in wild animals (46.7%) while Bacteroides (11.6%) and Prevotella (18.9%) were the most abundant in captive animals fed the captive and improved diets, respectively. Correlation analyses of nutrients with microbial taxa suggest important implications in using nutrition to suppress potential pathogens, with soluble fibre and water-soluble carbohydrates both being associated with opposing microbiome profiles. The improved diet significantly increased microbe diversity, which exemplifies the importance of high fibre diets; however, wild individuals had lower diversity, which contradicts recent studies. Detection of methanogens appeared to be dependent on diet and whether the animals were living in captivity or in the wild. This study highlights the potential of nutrition in modulating the microbiome of animals prior to release. Unexpectedly, the results were not as significant as has been suggested in recent studies.

The function of colouration in animals includes concealment, communication and signaling, such as the use of aposematism as a warning signal. Aposematism is unusual in mammals, and exceptions help us to understand its ecology and evolution. The Javan slow loris is a highly territorial venomous mammal that has a distinctive facial mask and monochromatic vision. To help understand if they use aposematism to advertise their venom to conspecifics or predators with different visual systems, we studied a population in Java, Indonesia. Using ImageJ, we selected colours from the facial masks of 58 individuals, converted RBG colours into monochromatic, dichromatic and trichromatic modes, and created a contrast index. During 290 captures, we recorded venom secretion and aggressiveness. Using Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling and generalised additive models for location, scale and shape, we found that young slow lorises differ significantly from adults, being both more contrasting and more aggressive, with aggressive animals showing fewer wounds. We suggest aposematic facial masks serve multiple purposes in slow lorises based on age. Change in colouration through development may play a role in intraspecific competition, and advertise toxicity or aggressiveness to competitors and/or predators in juveniles. Aposematic signals combined with intraspecific competition may provide clues to new venomous taxa among mammals.

Primate species have been increasingly threatened by legal and illegal trade in China, mainly for biomedical research or as pets and traditional medicine, yet most reports on trade from China regard international trade. To assess a proxy for amount of national primate trades, we quantified the number of reports of native primate species featuring in unique web news reports from 2000 to 2017, including accuracy of their identification, location where they were confiscated or rescued, and their condition upon rescue. To measure temporal trends across these categories, the time span was divided into three sections: 2000–2005, 2006–2011 and 2012–2017. A total of 735 individuals of 14 species were reported in 372 news reports, mostly rhesus macaques (n = 165, 22.5%, Macaca mulatta) and two species of slow lorises (n = 487, 66.3%, Nycticebus spp.). During the same period, live individuals of rhesus macaques were recorded 206 times (70,949 individuals) in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Trade Database, whereas slow lorises were only recorded four times (nine individuals), indicating that the species originated illegally from China or were illegally imported into China. Due to their rescued locations in residential areas (n = 211, 56.7%), most primates appeared to be housed privately as pets. A higher proportion of ‘market’ rescues during 2006–2011 (χ2 = 8.485, df = 2, p = 0.014), could be partly attributed to an intensive management on wildlife markets since the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003. More than half (68.3%, 502 individuals) of the primate individuals were unhealthy, injured or dead when rescued. Thus, identification and welfare training and capacity-building should be provided to husbandry and veterinary professionals, as well as education to the public through awareness initiatives. The increase in presence of some species, especially slow lorises, with a declining population in restricted areas, also suggests the urgent need for public awareness about the illegal nature of keeping these taxa as pets.

Comparative behavioural research reveals both intra- and inter-species diversity among primates. Few long-term behavioural studies have been conducted on African nocturnal primates. Here we describe and compare behavioural and ecological observations on two species of pottos (Perodicticus ibeanus and P. edwardsi) across ten sites. We observed a total of 51 P. edwardsi and 28 P. ibeanus. We recorded all 21 postures within an established lorisid ethogram, as well as 42 of 50 behaviours. Eating, locomotion, freezing, resting and sniffing were the most common behaviours. We recorded behaviours not previously described for perodicticines, including bark chewing and unique vocalisations. Three species of pottos are now recognised, with potentially more species to be revealed within this cryptic and nocturnal genus. Although there are similarities among potto species, we show that unique ecological adaptations and behaviours may further elucidate their diversity.

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) increases understanding of certain species and the threats they face, especially little-studied taxa for which data on distribution and conservation are often lacking. We conducted 111 semi-structured interviews in Sarawak, Malaysia, to collect local knowledge about the behavior and distribution of the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) from two ethnic groups, the Iban and the Penan. Our study revealed that male Penan respondents, generally hunters, who frequently go into the forest were better at identifying animals from pictures. Overall, the Penan have a more detailed knowledge of slow loris behaviors, habitat, and distribution than the Iban. The two ethnic groups have different attitudes towards slow loris as the Penan hunt, eat, or keep them as pets while the Iban consider them sacred and signifiers of good luck. We advocate the use of LEK for providing complementary information to scientific methods in the study of cryptic animals.

Los lémures, lorises y tarseros son grupos de primates, muy diversos social y ecológicamente, que incluyen algunas de las especies de mamíferos más amenazadas. Se revisaron los resultados de estudios a largo plazo de 15 especies de lémures en 7 áreas de estudio en Madagascar y una especie de loris y otra de tarsero, en Indonesia. Se resalta la importancia de las áreas de estudio a largo plazo como prerrequisito esencial para planear y llevar a cabo estudios de menor duración sobre temas especificos, como lo ejemplifican varios estudios eco-fisiológicos en lemurs. Estudios a largo plazo de individuos conocidos, han revelado variacion en la organizacion social dentro y entre especies ecologicamente similares. Incluso en estos primates, con un ciclo de vida relativamente corto, se necesita recopilar más de una década de datos de paternidad para determinar el sesgo reproductivo de los machos. Sin embargo, aún se sabe poco de las consecuencias a largo plazo que la posición de las hembras en la jerarquía social puede tener en su éxito reproductivo. El monitoreo a largo plazo de individuos conocidos es el unico metodo para obtener datos sobre adaptaciones en su history natural, las cuales aparentemente son moduladas en function de la predacion a las especies estudiadas en este trabajo. Estos estudios a largo plazo son tambien necesarios para afrontar temas específicos sobre la ecología de estas comunidades. La simple presencia de proyectos a largo plazo tienen un efecto positive en la proteccion de los lugares de studio, como asi tambien generan datos unicos que son fundamentals para apoyar medidas de conservacion tales como el monitoreo de poblaciones.

Tropical marine molluscs are traded globally. Larger species with slow life histories are under threat from over-exploitation. We report on the trade in protected marine mollusc shells in and from Java and Bali, Indonesia. Since 1987 twelve species of marine molluscs are protected under Indonesian law to shield them from overexploitation. Despite this protection they are traded openly in large volumes.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We collected data on species composition, origins, volumes and prices at two large open markets (2013), collected data from wholesale traders (2013), and compiled seizure data by the Indonesian authorities (2008–2013). All twelve protected species were observed in trade. Smaller species were traded for <USD1.00 whereas prices of larger species were USD15.00–40.00 with clear price-size relationships. Some shells were collected locally in Java and Bali, but the trade involves networks stretching hundreds of kilometres throughout Indonesia. Wholesale traders offer protected marine mollusc shells for the export market by the container or by the metric ton. Data from 20 confiscated shipments show an on-going trade in these molluscs. Over 42,000 shells were seized over a 5-year period, with a retail value of USD700,000 within Indonesia; horned helmet (Cassis cornuta) (>32,000 shells valued at USD500,000), chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius) (>3,000 shells, USD60,000) and giant clams (Tridacna spp.) (>2,000 shells, USD45,000) were traded in largest volumes. Two-thirds of this trade was destined for international markets, including in the USA and Asia-Pacific region.

Conclusions/Significance

We demonstrated that the trade in protected marine mollusc shells in Indonesia is not controlled nor monitored, that it involves large volumes, and that networks of shell collectors, traders, middlemen and exporters span the globe. This impedes protection of these species on the ground and calls into question the effectiveness of protected species management in Indonesia; solutions are unlikely to be found only in Indonesia and must involve the cooperation of importing countries.

improved legislative regulation, provision of educational materials and training programs to border control staff and the public. Finally, we strongly urge the continued monitoring of the slow loris trade in Japan. 

For endangered species management it is imperative that there is a shared understanding of the different beliefs, opinions and factual knowledge about different aspects of the conservation programme. To allow this to be taken into account, detailed assessments need to be made of these views, how they differ between individuals, and crucially, what beliefs and views are shared. These assessments require tools from both the natural and the social sciences. Here we focus on the beliefs, opinions and knowledge about Javan slow lorises in 12 Sundanese communities of West Java, Indonesia. Javan slow lorises are small, nocturnal, venomous primates that are threatened by habitat loss and over-exploitation for the illegal pet trade. Based on detailed interviews with 79 informants, and using cluster and cultural domain analyses, we identify and document five different topics, i.e. Trade and exploitation, Taboos against disturbing or capturing, Venomous primates, Blood myths and Mystical powers. The most salient topics were factual (activity pattern, habitat use) and the taboo on collecting or disturbing slow lorises. In communities where there were strong traditions, taboos and beliefs in place, slow lorises were found in seemingly unlikely habitats, in or adjacent to the villages; where these were absent slow lorises were less known to the communities and the slow lorises were either less abundant or absent. We conclude that it is imperative that any management programme or species action plan implemented in West Java has to take into account the traditions, beliefs and taboos regarding slow lorises.

Long-term monitoring programs, wildlife surveys, and other research involving species population assessment require reliable data on population status. Given the logistically challenging nature of some species’ habitats and cryptic behaviors, collecting these data can prove to be a considerable barrier. We used detection/nondetection data from pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) in the Cardamom Mountains of southwest Cambodia to estimate their population occupancy and detectability. We modeled occupancy using elevation, tree height, tree density, tree diversity, and disturbance covariates. Modeling demonstrated that 83% of the sites are occupied by Hylobates pileatus and that the detectability of the species varies positively with elevation. No clear relationship between habitat quality covariates and occupancy of Hylobates pileatus emerged. Effort analysis based on model estimates demonstrated that at high elevations, less than half the number of site visits is needed to attain the same detectability estimate precision as across all elevations. We suggest that human activities at low elevations, which affect forest composition, are the central factors impacting the detectability and occupancy of Hylobates pileatus. Longer sampling durations and/or a higher number of site visits, especially at lower elevations, increase precision of the occupancy estimator for the least effort. For effective future monitoring and research for this and similar species, using this relatively simple method, applied with repeat site visits, would allow a longitudinal comparison of detection at sites in difficult terrain.

Linking predator avoidance and social organisation predicts that large groups are favoured under heavy predation pressure but that small, inconspicuous groups may do equally well by avoiding detection altogether. We explored the relationships between antipredator behaviour (vocalisation, concealment, fleeing), detectability (colouration, group size) and social organisation in arboreal langurs. Three clear antipredation conditions emerged: (1) exemplified by Presbytis melalophos--brightly-coloured species (red, yellow) with contrasting colours, living in large unimale-multifemale groups (>10 individuals), that vocalised frequently and that flee loudly through the canopy; (2) exemplified by P. comata--greyish species (some contrasting colours), living in intermediate, unimale-multifemale or 1-male-1-female groups (approx. 7 individuals), that vocalise infrequently and that flee through the middle forest layers; (3) exemplified by P. frontata--dull-coloured species without contrast, living in small unimale-multifemale or 1-male-1-female groups (<5 individuals), that may freeze upon detection, and that may vocalise mainly during the night. Crypsis as an antipredator strategy is restricted to taxa that occur in 1-male-1-female groups. This wide range of antipredator strategies within a monophyletic taxon living in the same general area with a similar suite of predators facing similar predator pressures appears to be unique among the order Primates.

More species of nocturnal primates are now recognized than in the past, because many are cryptic species. Subtle morphological disparities, such as pelage pattern and color variation, vocal cues, and genetics have aided in elucidating the number of diagnosable species in a genus. The slow lorises (genus Nycticebus) once included only two species, but recent taxonomic studies resulted in the description of three additional species; further incompletely explored variability characterizes each of the currently described species. The Bornean loris in particular is characterized by pelage and body size variation. In this study, we explored facemask variation in the Bornean loris (N. menagensis). Differing facemask patterns, particularly influenced by the amount of white on the face, significantly clustered together by geographic regions, separated by notable geographic boundaries. Our results support the recognition of four species of Bornean lorises: N. menagensis, N. bancanus, N. borneanus, and N. kayan. Genetic studies are required to support these findings and to refine further our understanding of the marked variability within the Bornean loris populations.

Background

The internet is gaining importance in global wildlife trade and changing perceptions of threatened species. There is little data available to examine the impact that popular Web 2.0 sites play on public perceptions of threatened species. YouTube videos portraying wildlife allow us to quantify these perceptions.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Focussing on a group of threatened and globally protected primates, slow lorises, we quantify public attitudes towards wildlife conservation by analysing 12,411 comments and associated data posted on a viral YouTube video ‘tickling slow loris’ over a 33-months period. In the initial months a quarter of commentators indicated wanting a loris as a pet, but as facts about their conservation and ecology became more prevalent this dropped significantly. Endorsements, where people were directed to the site by celebrities, resulted mostly in numerous neutral responses with few links to conservation or awareness. Two conservation-related events, linked to Wikipedia and the airing of a television documentary, led to an increase in awareness, and ultimately to the removal of the analysed video.

Conclusions/Significance

Slow loris videos that have gone viral have introduced these primates to a large cross-section of society that would not normally come into contact with them. Analyses of webometric data posted on the internet allow us quickly to gauge societal sentiments. We showed a clear temporal change in some views expressed but without an apparent increase in knowledge about the conservation plight of the species, or the illegal nature of slow loris trade. Celebrity endorsement of videos showing protected wildlife increases visits to such sites, but does not educate about conservation issues. The strong desire of commentators to express their want for one as a pet demonstrates the need for Web 2.0 sites to provide a mechanism via which illegal animal material can be identified and policed.

Trade in primates is seen as a significant impediment to their conservation. Primates are traded both domestically and internationally, in order to supply, amongst others, biomedical industries and pharmaceutical markets, the entertainment business, or pet markets. Primate meat is consumed globally, whereas body parts are used as ingredients in traditional medicine or sold as curios. All international trade in primates is regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), to which all but 2 primate range countries are signatory. The last 15 years has seen a linear increase in the export of live primates (each year 3500 more individuals are exported), with China being, numerically, the largest exporter. While the trade in live primates worldwide involves tens, if not hundreds, of thousands of individuals a year, the trade in dead primates involves millions of animals a year. We introduce here a series of studies dealing with various aspects of the primate trade. We hope that these studies will urge others to quantify the extent of trade in primates alive and dead in both domestic and international contexts, allowing us to find ways to mitigate the consequences of this trade to the conservation of primates.

Aim: Data on geographical ranges are essential when defining the conservation status of a species, and in evaluating levels of human disturbance. Where locality data are deficient, presence-only ecological niche modelling (ENM) can provide insights into a species' potential distribution, and can aid in conservation planning. Presence-only ENM is especially important for rare, cryptic and nocturnal species, where absence is difficult to define. Here we applied ENM to carry out an anthropogenic risk assessment and set conservation priorities for three threatened species of Asian slow loris (Primates: Nycticebus). Location: Borneo, Java and Sumatra, Southeast Asia. Methods: Distribution models were built using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) ENM. We input 20 environmental variables comprising temperature, precipitation and altitude, along with species locality data. We clipped predicted distributions to forest cover and altitudinal data to generate remnant distributions. These were then applied to protected area (PA) and human land-use data, using specific criteria to define low-, medium- or high-risk areas. These data were analysed to pinpoint priority study sites, suitable reintroduction zones and protected area extensions. Results: A jackknife validation method indicated highly significant models for all three species with small sample sizes (n = 10 to 23 occurrences). The distribution models represented high habitat suitability within each species' geographical range. High-risk areas were most prevalent for the Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) on Java, with the highest proportion of low-risk areas for the Bornean slow loris (N. menagensis) on Borneo. Eighteen PA extensions and 23 priority survey sites were identified across the study region. Main conclusions: Discriminating areas of high habitat suitability lays the foundations for planning field studies and conservation initiatives. This study highlights potential reintroduction zones that will minimize anthropogenic threats to animals that are released. These data reiterate the conclusion of previous research, showing MaxEnt is a viable technique for modelling species distributions with small sample sizes.

In this study we describe tree hole characteristics and use by the hairy-eared dwarf lemur (Allocebus trichotis) to determine habitat needs, potential functions of tree holes and sleeping group composition. We radio-tracked 6 adult individuals between April and November 2007 in the Analamazaotra Special Reserve. Tree holes were 1-9 m high (median: 7 m), in living trees measuring 26-54 cm in diameter at breast height (median: 32 cm), and could be a limiting resource. Each individual used 4 or 5 tree holes and had high nest fidelity. Animals most often slept socially in mixed-sex groups of 2-6 individuals and occasionally shared a tree hole with white-tailed tree rats (Brachytarsomys albicauda). We identified two sleeping groups: one composed of 2 adult males, 2 adult females and 2 juveniles; one composed of at least 2 adult females and 2 juveniles. Although tree holes were generally group exclusive, some intergroup sleeping was observed. Tree holes could have antipredator and thermoregulatory functions. Further research into sleeping hole availability, nest use and the degree of niche separation or competition between sympatric Cheirogaleidae and other tree hole users (e.g. endemic rodents) is needed to assess better the conservation needs of these species.

We integrate information from the fossil record, morphology, behavior and molecular studies to provide a current overview of lorisoid evolution. Several Eocene prosimians of the northern continents, including both omomyids and adapoids, have been suggested as possible lorisoid ancestors, but these cannot be substantiated as true strepsirhines. A small-bodied primate, Anchomomys, of the middle Eocene of Europe may be the best candidate among putative adapoids for status as a true strepsirhine. Recent finds of Eocene primates in Africa have revealed new prosimian taxa that are also viable contenders for strepsirhine status. Plesiopithecus teras is a Nycticebus-sized, nocturnal prosimian from the late Eocene, Fayum, Egypt, that shares cranial specializations with lorisoids, but it also retains primitive features (e.g. four premolars) and has unique specializations of the anterior teeth excluding it from direct lorisiform ancestry. Another unnamed Fayum primate resembles modern cheirogaleids in dental structure and body size. Two genera from Oman, Omanodon and Shizarodon, also reveal a mix of similarities to both cheirogaleids and anchomomyin adapoids. Resolving the phylogenetic position of these Africa primates of the early Tertiary will surely require more and better fossils. By the early to middle Miocene, lorisoids were well established in East Africa, and the debate about whether these represent lorisines or galagines is reviewed. Neontological data are used to address the controversial branching sequences among extant lorisid clades. Data from the skin and scent glands, when integrated with other lines of evidence, suggest that Asian and African lorisines share a common lorisine ancestry. The hypothesis of an African clade containing both pottos and galagos to the exclusion of Asian lorisines is less tenable. True galagines are found in the fossil record of Namibia, while true lorisines are known from the Miocene of Asia. The hypothetical branching sequences can be integrated with behavioral and morphological features to develop an adaptive model of lorisoid divergence. By specializing on two different foraging modes early in their radiation, lorisines and galagines subsequently underwent a chain of integrated evolutionary changes eventually having an impact on many components of locomotor behavior, anatomy, physiology, reproduction, life history, and social behavior. Ongoing evolutionary studies of extant galagines are illuminating population phenomena and processes of speciation in an ecological context.